[Federal Register Volume 61, Number 198 (Thursday, October 10, 1996)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 53108-53124]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 96-25556]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
50 CFR Part 17
RIN 1018-AD58
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of
Endangered or Threatened Status for Fourteen Plant Taxa From the
Hawaiian Islands
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) determines
endangered status pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (Act), for 13 plant taxa--Achyranthes mutica (No common name
(NCN)), Cenchrus agrimonioides (kamanomano), Cyanea grimesiana ssp.
grimesiana (haha), Cyperus trachysanthos (pu`uka`a), Euphorbia
haeleeleana (NCN), Isodendrion laurifolium (aupaka), Panicum niihauense
(lau `ehu), Phyllostegia
[[Page 53109]]
parviflora (NCN), Platanthera holochila (NCN), Sanicula purpurea (NCN),
Schiedea hookeri (NCN), Schiedea kauaiensis (NCN), and Schiedea
nuttallii (NCN). The Service also determines threatened status for
Isodendrion longifolium (aupaka). The 14 taxa are endemic to the
Hawaiian Islands and are now known from one or more of the following
Hawaiian Islands--Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and
Hawaii. The 14 plant taxa and their habitats have been variously
affected or are currently threatened by one or more of the following--
competition, predation or habitat degradation from alien species, human
impacts, fire, and natural disasters. This final rule implements the
Federal protection provisions provided by the Act.
EFFECTIVE DATE: This rule takes effect November 12, 1996.
ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for inspection,
by appointment, during normal business hours at the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Room
3108, P.O. Box 5088, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Brooks Harper, Field Supervisor,
Ecological Services, Pacific Islands Ecoregion (see ADDRESSES section)
(telephone: 808/541-3441; facsimile: 808/541-3470).
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Achyranthes mutica, Cenchrus agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp.
grimesiana, Cyperus trachysanthos, Euphorbia haeleeleana, Isodendrion
laurifolium, Isodendrion longifolium, Panicum niihauense, Phyllostegia
parviflora, Platanthera holochila, Sanicula purpurea, Schiedea hookeri,
Schiedea kauaiensis, and Schiedea nuttallii are, or were, known from 10
Hawaiian Islands--Laysan, Midway, Kure, Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai,
Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii. The current and historical distribution by
island is presented in Table 1 for each of the 14 taxa.
Table 1. Summary of Island Distribution of the Taxa
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hawaiian Island
Species -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Kure Maui Laysan Niihau Kauai Oahu Molokai Lanai Maui Hawaii
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Achyranthes mutica........................ ......... ......... ......... ......... H ......... ......... ......... ......... C
Cenchrus agrimonioides.................... H H H ......... ......... C ......... H C H?
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... C C C C .........
Cyperus trachysanthos..................... ......... ......... ......... C C C H H ......... .........
Euphorbia haeleeleana..................... ......... ......... ......... ......... C C ......... ......... ......... .........
Isodendrion laurifolium................... ......... ......... ......... ......... C C ......... ......... ......... .........
Isodendrion longifolium................... ......... ......... ......... ......... C C ......... ......... ......... .........
Panicum niihauense........................ ......... ......... ......... H C ......... ......... ......... ......... .........
Phyllostegia parviflora................... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... C ......... ......... H H
Platanthera holochila..................... ......... ......... ......... ......... C H C ......... C .........
Sanicula purpurea......................... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... C ......... ......... C .........
Schiedea hookeri.......................... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... C ......... ......... H .........
Schiedea kauaiensis....................... ......... ......... ......... ......... C ......... ......... ......... ......... .........
Schiedea nuttallii........................ ......... ......... ......... ......... C C ......... ......... ......... .........
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key:
C--current; population last observed within the past 20 years.
H--historical; population not seen for over 20 years.
?--questionable locality or inconsistent information in sources.
The Hawaiian archipelago includes eight large volcanic islands
(Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii), as
well as offshore islets, shoals, and atolls set on submerged volcanic
remnants at the northwestern end of the chain (the Northwestern
Hawaiian Islands, including Laysan, Midway, and Kure). The archipelago
covers a land area of about 16,600 square kilometers (sq km) (6,400 sq
miles (mi)), extending roughly between latitude 18 deg.50' and
28 deg.15' N and longitude 154 deg.40' and 178 deg.70' W, and ranging
in elevation from sea level to 4,200 meters (m) (13,800 feet (ft))
(Department of Geography 1983). The regional geological setting is a
mid-oceanic volcanic island archipelago set in a roughly northwest to
southeast line, with younger islands to the southeast. The youngest
island, Hawaii, is volcanically active. The older islands are
increasingly eroded, so that the basaltic portions of many of the north
westernmost islands (such as Laysan, Midway, and Kure) are entirely
submerged, and coralline atolls and shoals are often all that remain
above sea level (Macdonald et al. 1986). The topography of the Hawaiian
Islands is extremely diverse. On the youngest islands, Hawaii and Maui,
gently sloping unweathered shield volcanoes with very poor soil
development are juxtaposed with older, heavily weathered valleys with
steep walls, well-developed streams, and gently sloped flood plains.
The older islands to the northwest (Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai)
are generally more weathered. On a typical older island, sea cliffs and
large amphitheater-headed valleys on the windward (northeast) side
contrast with erosionally younger, dissected slopes on the leeward
(southwest) side (Department of Geography 1983).
The climate of the Hawaiian Islands reflects the tropical setting
buffered by the surrounding ocean (Department of Geography 1983). The
prevailing winds are northeast trade winds with some seasonal
fluctuation in strength. The islands also experience winter storm
systems and occasional hurricanes. Annual rainfall varies greatly by
location, with marked windward to leeward gradients over short
distances. Minimum average annual rainfall is less than 250 millimeters
(mm) (10 inches (in.)); the maximum average precipitation is well in
excess of 11,000 mm (450 in.) per year. Precipitation is greatest
during the months of October through April. A dry season is apparent in
leeward settings, while windward settings generally receive trade wind-
driven rainfall throughout the year (Department of Geography 1983).
The native-dominated vegetation of the Hawaiian Islands varies
greatly
[[Page 53110]]
according to elevation, moisture regime, and substrate. Within the
nearly 100 recognized native vegetation types are numerous island-
specific or region-specific associations, comprising an extremely rich
array of vegetation types over a very limited geographic area. Major
vegetation formations include forests, woodlands, shrublands,
grasslands, herblands, and pioneer associations on lava and cinder
substrates (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
In Hawaii, lowland, montane, and subalpine forest types extend from
sea level to above 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in elevation. Coastal and lowland
forests are generally dry or mesic and may be open- or closed-canopied.
The stature of lowland forests is generally under 10 m (30 ft). Ten of
the taxa in this final rule (Achyranthes mutica, Cenchrus agrimonioides
var. agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, Euphorbia
haeleeleana, Isodendrion laurifolium, I. longifolium, Panicum
niihauense, Schiedea hookeri, S. nuttallii, and S. kauaiensis) have
been reported from lowland dry or mesic forest habitat. C.
agrimonioides var. laysanensis has been reported from dry coastal
strand vegetation. Four taxa (I. laurifolium, I. longifolium,
Phyllostegia parviflora, and Sanicula purpurea) have been reported from
lowland wet forest habitat. One taxon, Cyperus trachysanthos, has been
reported from wet sites on coastal cliffs or talus slopes. Montane wet
forests, occupying elevations between 915 and 1,830 m (3,000 and 6,000
ft), occur on the windward slopes and summits of the islands of Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii. The forests may be open- to closed-
canopied, and may exceed 20 m (65 ft) in height. Montane wet forests
are usually dominated by several species of native trees and tree
ferns. Platanthera holochila, has been reported from montane wet forest
habitat. Montane bogs, found on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, occur
primarily on flat or gently sloping terrain with impervious substrates
between 915 and 1,830 m (3,000 and 6,000 ft) in elevation. The
vegetation of most of these bogs consists of an irregular, hummocky
cushion of sedges, with Metrosideros polymorpha ('ohi'a) usually a
codominant. Two taxa, P. holochila and S. purpurea, have been reported
from montane bog habitats. Hawaiian shrublands are also found from
coastal to alpine elevations. The majority of Hawaiian shrubland types
are in dry and mesic settings, or on cliffs and slopes too steep to
support trees. Only one of the taxa, P. niihauense, has been reported
from coastal dry shrubland habitat, on Kauai.
The land that supports these 14 plant taxa is owned by various
private parties, the City and County of Honolulu, the State of Hawaii
(including State parks, forest reserves, natural area reserves, and
Hawaiian Home Lands), and the Federal government (Department of Defense
(DOD)).
Discussion of the 14 Plant Taxa
Achyranthes mutica was first described by Asa Gray in 1867 based on
a specimen collected on Kauai between 1851 and 1855 by Ezechiel Jules
Remy, a French naturalist and ethnologist (St. John 1979, Wagner et al.
1990). Achyranthes nelsonii (St. John 1979) is considered to be
synonymous with A. mutica by the authors of the current treatment of
Hawaiian members of the family (Wagner et al. 1990).
Achyranthes mutica, a member of the amaranth family
(Amaranthaceae), is a many-branched shrub with stems ranging from 30 to
60 centimeters (cm) (12 to 24 in.) long. The opposite leaves, usually
3.2 to 4 cm (1.3 to 1.6 in.) long and 1.5 to 2 cm (0.6 to 0.8 in.)
wide, are inversely egg-shaped to elliptic or inversely lance-shaped.
The stalkless flowers are arranged in spikes (flowers directly attached
to the main flower axis) that are 0.4 to 1.5 cm (0.2 to 0.6 in.) long.
The apetalous (lacking petals) flowers are perfect (containing both
female and male parts). The sepals are of unequal length, 3 to 4.2 mm
(0.1 to 0.2 in.) long, and have sharply pointed tips. This species is
distinguished from others in the genus by the shape and size of the
sepals and by characteristics of the spike, which is short and
congested (Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically Achyranthes mutica was known from three collections
from opposite ends of the main archipelago, Kauai and Hawaii (Hawaii
Heritage Program (HHP) 1994c1, 1994c2; Hawaii Plant Conservation Center
(HPCC) 1992a). Currently this species is known only from the Keawewai
Stream area in the Kohala Mountains of Hawaii on private land. Between
20 and 50 plants are growing at an elevation of about 920 m (3,030 ft)
in an Acacia koaia (koai'a) lowland dry forest with Dodonaea viscosa
('a'ali'I), Myoporum sandwicense (naio), Nestegis sandwicensis
(olopua), Osteomeles anthyllidifolia ('ulei), and Sophora chrysophylla
(mamane) (HPCC 1992a).
The primary threats to the single remaining population of
Achyranthes mutica are habitat degradation and/or destruction by
ungulates such as cattle (Bos taurus) and feral goats (Capra hircus),
competition with alien plant taxa, and a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events (such as landslides or hurricanes) and/or
reduced reproductive vigor, due to the small number of existing
individuals in a single remaining population (HPCC 1992a; Christa
Russell, The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH), pers. comm. 1994).
Louis C.A. von Chamisso, a botanist on the Russian vessel Rurik,
first collected Cenchrus agrimonioides on Oahu during a world exploring
expedition between 1816 and 1817. Carl Bernhard von Trinius described
the species several years later (Degener and Whitney 1937). Other
published names considered synonymous with C. agrimonioides include C.
calyculatus var. uniflorus, C. laysanensis, and C. pedunculatus
(O'Connor 1990). Currently, two varieties are recognized--the nominate
variety and variety laysanensis, which was described by F.B. Brown
(1931).
Cenchrus agrimonioides, a member of the grass family (Poaceae), is
a perennial grass with stems 0.3 to 2 m (1 to 6.7 ft) tall. The leaf
blades, 20 to 40 cm (8 to 16 in.) long and 5 to 25 mm (0.2 to 1 in.)
wide, are flat or folded and have a prominent midrib. The inflorescence
(flower cluster) is a raceme (an unbranched, indeterminate
inflorescence with flowers arranged along the axis) 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4
in.) long, bearing cylindrical to lance-shaped burs 8 to 18 mm (0.3 to
0.7 in.) long. The burs are densely hairy with an outer series of
numerous, somewhat spreading bristles. Each bur partially envelops one
spikelet (ultimate flower cluster). This species is distinguished from
others in the genus by the cylindrical to lance-shaped bur and the
arrangement and position of the bristles. C. a. var. agrimonioides
differs from var. laysanensis in generally having smaller burs, shorter
stems, and narrower leaves (O'Connor 1990).
Historically Cenchrus agrimonioides var. agrimonioides was known
from the following general areas--the Waianae Mountains of Oahu,
Kaaukuu on Lanai, and the south slope of Haleakala and Ulupalakua on
Maui. It may possibly have occurred on the island of Hawaii;
undocumented observations of this taxon have been reported from
unspecified locations on this island (HHP 1994d1 to 1994d14, Hillebrand
1888). Currently C. a. var. agrimonioides is known from Oahu and Maui.
In the Waianae Mountains on Oahu, approximately 25 individuals are
found in the following populations--Pahole Gulch in the State's Pahole
Natural Area Reserve (NAR), Makaha-Waianae Kai Ridge on City and County
of Honolulu land, Kahanahaiki Valley on State land leased by the DOD
for the Makua
[[Page 53111]]
Military Reservation, east Makaleha on State land, and Pualii drainage
on private land in TNCH's Honouliuli Preserve (HHP 1994d1, 1994d8,
1994d11, 1994d12, 1994d14). On Maui, a patch of C. a. var.
agrimonioides plants, 0.9 sq m (10 sq ft) in size, is known from State
land within Kanaio NAR (Robert Hobdy, Division of Forestry and Wildlife
(DOFAW), pers. comm. 1994). The number of individuals statewide totals
fewer than 100. Cenchrus agrimonioides var. agrimonioides is usually
found on dry rocky ridges or slopes, or ridges in mesic 'ohi'a-koa
forest between 560 and 820 m (1,830 and 2,700 ft) in elevation.
Associated plant taxa include Alyxia oliviformis (maile), Psydrax
odoratum (alahe'e), Carex sp., Diospyros sp. (lama), and Eragrostis
variabilis (kawelu) (HHP 1994d8, 1994d11, 1994d12, 1994d14; R. Hobdy,
pers. comm. 1994).
The other variety of this species, Cenchrus agrimonioides var.
laysanensis, was known historically from the northwestern Hawaiian
islands of Laysan, Kure, and Midway, all within the Northwestern
Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. This variety has not been
seen since 1973. These islands are infrequently surveyed for plants,
the last comprehensive survey being completed in the 1980s, so it is
possible that the variety still exists and will be found with further
survey efforts (Corn 1980; HHP 1991a1, 1991a2).
The major threats to Cenchrus agrimonioides var. agrimonioides are
habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs (Sus scrofa) (Oahu
only), competition with alien plant taxa, and a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals. The Pahole Gulch population on
Oahu is potentially threatened by trampling and fire from military
activities and the Maui population is potentially threatened by goats
and cattle (HHP 1994d1, 1994d8, 1994d11, 1994d12, 1994d14; R. Hobdy and
C. Russell, pers. comms. 1994). Listing of Cenchrus agrimonioides
protects both varieties.
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana was collected by Charles
Gaudichaud-Beaupre in 1819 on Oahu while he was pharmaceutical botanist
on the vessel Uranie (HHP 1989a, Rock 1919, Wagner et al. 1990).
Gaudichaud later described this taxon and named it for the French
Navy's head pharmacist (Thomas G. Lammers, Field Museum, pers. comm.
1994). Other published names considered synonymous with Cyanea
grimesiana ssp. grimesiana include C. grimesiana var. lydgatei, C.
grimesiana var. mauiensis, C. grimesiana var. munroi, and C. lobata
var. hamakuae (Lammers 1990). Currently, three subspecies are
recognized--the extinct ssp. cylindrocalyx (Rock 1917); ssp.
grimesiana; and the federally endangered ssp. obatae (St. John 1978a).
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, a member of the bellflower
family (Campanulaceae), is a shrub 1 to 3.2 m (3.3 to 10.5 ft) tall.
The leaves are pinnately divided, with 9 to 12 segments per side. The
leaf blades are 27 to 58 cm (10.6 to 22.9 in.) long and 14 to 32 cm
(5.5 to 12.6 in.) wide (across the segments). The inflorescence
comprises 6 to 12 flowers. The calyx lobes, 10 to 44 mm (0.4 to 2 in.)
long and 4 to 14 mm (0.2 to 0.55 in.) wide, are egg-shaped to lance-
shaped and overlap at the base. The petals are purplish or greenish to
yellowish white, often suffused or striped with magenta, and 55 to 80
mm (2 to 3 in.) long. The orange berries are 18 to 30 mm (0.7 to 1.2
in.) long. This species is distinguished from others in this endemic
Hawaiian genus by the pinnately lobed leaf margins and the width of the
leaf blades. This subspecies is distinguished from the other two
subspecies by the shape and size of the calyx lobes, which overlap at
the base (Lammers 1990).
Historically Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana was known from at
least 40 populations located in the Waianae and Koolau mountains on
Oahu, Wailau Valley and Puu Kahea on Molokai, central and northern
Lanai, and scattered locations on Maui (HHP 1994e1 to 1994e39; Heidi
Bornhorst, TNCH, and Steven Perlman, National Tropical Botanical
Garden, in litt. 1992). Currently C. g. ssp. grimesiana is known from
14 populations on those 4 islands (HHP 1994e1, 1994e4, 1994e6 to
1994e8, 1994e14, 1994e15, 1994e26, 1994e27, 1994e34, 1994e36 to
1994e38; H. Bornhorst and S. Perlman, in litt. 1992). On Oahu, the
following populations are known from the Waianae Mountains--one
population from Mt. Kaala NAR and three populations from Pahole NAR on
State land, one population each from North Haleauau Gulch on the
federally owned Schofield Barracks Military Reservation and North
Kaluaa Gulch on private land. Two populations are known from Oahu's
Koolau Mountains on State and private land (HHP 1994e1, 1994e4, 1994e8,
1994e14, 1994e15, 1994e34, 1994e38; H. Bornhorst and S. Perlman, in
litt. 1992). On Molokai, one population is known from Kukuinui Ridge on
State land and the other is within the State's Olokui NAR (HHP 1994e7,
1994e36). On Lanai, two populations are known from Kaiholena Gulch and
an unnamed gulch south of Puhielelu Ridge, in the central portion of
the island, both on private land (HHP 1994e27, 1994e37). On Maui, two
populations are known from Iao Valley on private land. A population
previously reported in lower Kipahulu Valley within Haleakala National
Park has been determined to be C. asplenifolia, based on recently
available flowering material (HHP 1994e6, 1994e26; Lloyd Loope,
National Biological Service (NBS), in litt. 1995; Art Medeiros, NBS,
pers. comm. 1995). The total current populations statewide consist of
fewer than 50 individuals (HHP 1994e1, 1994e4, 1994e8, 1994e14,
1994e15, 1994e34, 1994e38; H. Bornhorst and S. Perlman, in litt. 1992).
C. g. ssp. grimesiana is typically found in mesic forest often
dominated by 'ohi'a or o'hi'a and koa, or on rocky or steep slopes of
stream banks, and between 350 and 945 m (1,150 and 3,100 ft) elevation.
Associated plant taxa include Antidesma sp. (hame), Bobea sp.
('ahakea), Psychotria sp. (kopiko), Xylosma sp. (maua), and various
native and alien ferns (HHP 1994e1, 1994e7, 1994e8, 1994e14, 1994e34,
1994e37; H. Bornhorst and S. Perlman, in litt. 1992).
The major threats to Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana are habitat
degradation and/or destruction caused by wild and feral ungulates (axis
deer (Axis axis), goats, and pigs) and competition with various alien
plants. Potential overcollection, trampling by hikers and/or military
activities, and fire threaten the Palikea population on Oahu. The Oahu
populations are also threatened by landslides (HHP 1994e1, 1994e7,
1994e34, 1994e37; H. Bornhorst and S. Perlman, in litt. 1992; Loyal
Mehrhoff, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. comm. 1995). Rats
(Rattus spp.) are also a potential threat, since they are known to eat
the fruits and girdle the stems of species in the bellflower family
(Joel Lau, TNCH, pers. comm. 1994).
First collected by Chamisso between 1816 and 1817 in the ``Sandwich
Islands,'' Cyperus trachysanthos was described by William J. Hooker and
G.A.W. Arnott in 1832 (Hillebrand 1888, Mill et al. 1988). This species
has been maintained in the most recent treatment of Hawaiian members of
the genus (Koyama 1990). The specific epithet refers to the rough or
papery flowers.
Cyperus trachysanthos, a member of the sedge family (Cyperaceae),
is a perennial grass-like plant with a short rhizome (underground
stem). The culms (aerial stems) are densely tufted, obtusely
triangular, 20 to 45 cm (8 to 18 in.) tall, sticky, and leafy at the
base.
[[Page 53112]]
The linear leaf blades are green, covered with a waxy coating, and
somewhat leathery. The leaf sheath is yellowish brown and partitioned
with nodes. The flower clusters are 5 to 9 cm (2 to 3.5 in.) long and 6
to 12 cm (2 to 5 in.) wide. Each flower head contains 10 to 30 pale
yellowish brown spikelets, each of which contains 8 to 20 flowers. The
glumes (small pair of bracts at the base of each spikelet) are broadly
egg-shaped. The fruit is a dark brown, egg-shaped achene. This species
is distinguished from others in the genus by the short rhizome, the
leaf sheath with partitions at the nodes, the shape of the glumes, and
the length of the culms (Koyama 1990).
Historically Cyperus trachysanthos was known from Niihau, Kauai,
scattered locations on Oahu, Mauna Loa on Molokai, and Kaena on Lanai
(HHP 1994f1 to 1994f15, HPCC 1993a). Currently this species is known
from 3 populations on Niihau, Kauai, and Oahu with an estimated total
of less than 350 individuals (HHP 1994f1, 1994f5; HPCC 1993a). On
privately owned Niihau, an unknown number of individuals is known from
an area west of Mokouia Valley (HHP 1994f5). On Kauai, more than 300
individuals are known from State land in Nualolo Valley, while on Oahu
an unspecified number of individuals is known from State land at Kaena
Point (HHP 1994f1, HPCC 1993a). C. trachysanthos is usually found in
wet sites (mud flats, wet clay soil, or wet cliff seeps) on coastal
cliffs or talus slopes between 3 and 160 m (10 and 525 ft) elevation
(HHP 1994f1, 1994f5; HPCC 1993a; Koyama 1990). On Kauai, associates
include Hibiscus tiliaceus (hau), Plantago lanceolata (narrow-leaved
plantain), and Pteris vittata (HPCC 1993a).
Cyperus trachysanthos is threatened by a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events due to the small number of populations,
goats on Kauaii (Kenneth Wood, National Tropical Botanical Garden,
pers. comm. 1996) and competition with alien plant species on Oahu and
Kauaii (HHP 1994f1; J. Lau and C. Russell, pers. comms. 1994).
In 1970, Steven Montgomery and the late Wayne Gagne collected a
specimen of an unidentified tree in Mahanaloa Valley on Kauai. The
following year, Derral Herbst (1971) described it as Euphorbia
haeleeleana, naming it for another valley where the plant grows. This
species has been maintained in the most recent treatment of Hawaiian
members of the genus (Wagner et al. 1990).
Euphorbia haeleeleana, a member of the spurge family
(Euphorbiaceae), is a dioecious (female and male flowers on separate
plants) tree 3 to 14 m (10 to 46 ft) tall. The alternate leaves are
papery in texture, elliptic, and usually 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in.) long
and 4 to 6 cm (2 in.) wide. Male trees bear many small male flowers
within a cyathium (a compact inflorescence with small individual
flowers). The female trees have cyathia with a single female flower
surrounded by numerous abortive male flowers. The capsules (dry fruit
that open at maturity) are round. This species is distinguished from
others in the genus in that it is a tree, whereas most of the other
species are herbs or shrubs, as well as by the large leaves with
prominent veins (Wagner et al. 1990).
Euphorbia haeleeleana is known historically and currently from 15
populations and between 450 and 625 individuals from northwestern Kauai
and the Waianae Mountains of Oahu (HHP 1994g1 to 1994g14, HPCC 1993b).
On Kauai, 11 populations are known from valley slopes and cliffs along
Kauai's northwestern coast from Pohakuao to Haeleele Valley and Hipalau
Valley within Waimea Canyon. All of the Kauai populations occur on
State land, including Kuia NAR and the Na Pali Coast State Park (HHP
1994g1 to 1994g4, 1994g7 to 1994g9, 1994g11, 1994g12, 1994g14; HPCC
1993b). On Oahu, four populations are known from the northern Waianae
Mountains. Three of these populations occur on State land leased by the
DOD for the Makua Military Reservation, and the fourth population
occurs on privately owned land (HHP 1994g5, 1994g6, 1994g10, 1994g13).
Euphorbia haeleeleana is usually found in lowland mixed mesic or dry
forest that is often dominated by 'ohi'a, 'ohi'a and koa, lama, or
Aleurites moluccana (kukui). Typically found between 205 and 670 m (680
and 2,200 ft) elevation, a few populations have been found at
elevations up to 870 m (2,860 ft). Associated plant taxa include
'a'ali'i, Erythrina sandwicensis (wiliwili), Pleomele sp. (hala pepe),
Reynoldsia sandwicensis ('ohe), and Sapindus oahuensis (aulu) (HHP
1994g1 to 1994g14, HPCC 1993b).
Habitat degradation and/or destruction by wild and feral ungulates
including black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus), goats, and pigs;
predation by rats; fire; potential military activities; and competition
with alien plant taxa seriously threaten Euphorbia haeleeleana (HHP
1994g1, 1994g3 to 1994g7, 1994g10, 1994g12 to 1994g14; HPCC 1993b).
Isodendrion laurifolium was first described by Gray in 1852 based
on a collection made on Oahu by members of the U.S. Exploring
Expedition in 1840 (St. John 1952). Other published names considered
synonymous with I. laurifolium are I. forbesii, I. lydgatei, I.
subsessilifolium, and I. waianaeense (Wagner et al. 1990). The specific
epithet refers to the resemblance in the leaves to those of the laurel
tree (Laurus sp.).
Isodendrion laurifolium, a member of the violet family (Violaceae),
is a slender, straight shrub, generally 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 ft) tall, with
few branches. The leaves, 4 to 16 cm (2 to 6 in.) long and 1.5 to 5 cm
(0.6 to 2 in.) wide, are somewhat leathery, oblong-elliptic, narrowly
elliptic lance-shaped, or rarely elliptic. The fragrant flowers are
perfect and borne singly along the stems. The five petals, which are
clawed and somewhat unequal, are purple with greenish white edges
externally, and dusty purple on the inner face of the lobe. The fruit
is a green, lance-shaped capsule. This species is distinguished from
others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by the shape of its leaves
(Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically Isodendrion laurifolium was known from scattered
locations on Kauai and both the Waianae and Koolau mountains of Oahu
(HHP 1994h1 to 1994h21). A total of 14 populations on 2 islands
comprising approximately 190 to 210 individuals is currently known
statewide. On Kauai, approximately 130 to 140 individuals are known
from 8 populations in the following locations--Paaiki, Kawaiula,
Haeleele, Makaha, Poopooiki, and Kuia valleys, and the Koaie branch of
Waimea Canyon. All Kauai populations occur on State-owned land, with
several in Kuia NAR (HHP 1994h6, 1994h9 to 1994h13, 1994h15, 1994h21).
On Oahu, approximately 60 to 70 individuals of this species are known
from 6 populations--Makaha in the Waianae Mountains, on City and County
of Honolulu land; East Makaleha Valley, Waianae Kai, Kaawa Gulch, and
Kaumokunui Gulch in the Waianae Mountains, on State land, including Mt.
Kaala NAR; and south Kaukonahua Gulch within the federally owned
Schofield Barracks Military Reservation in the Koolau Mountains (HHP
1994h1, 1994h2, 1994h16, 1994h17, 1994h18, 1994h20). Isodendrion
laurifolium is usually found between 490 and 820 m (1,620 and 2,700 ft)
elevation in diverse mesic forest, or rarely wet forest, dominated by
o'hia' or koa-o'hia', or o'hia'-lama with hame, maua, Hedyotis
terminalis (manono), Pisonia sp. (papala kepau), and Pouteria sp.
('a'ali'i) (HHP 1994h1, 1994h2, 1994h6, 1994h9 to 1994h13, 1994h15 to
1994h18, 1994h20).
[[Page 53113]]
The primary threats to Isodendrion laurifolium are habitat
degradation by ungulates (black-tailed deer, goats, and pigs),
competition with alien plant taxa, and a potential threat from military
activities (HHP 1994h2, 1994h6, 1994h9, 1994h11, 1994h15 to 1994h18,
1994h20, 1994h21).
Isodendrion longifolium was first collected in 1840 in the
``Kaala'' [Waianae] Mountains of Oahu by members of the U.S. Exploring
Expedition. Gray later named this species for its long leaves (St. John
1952). Isodendrion christensenii and I. maculatum (St. John 1952,
1978b) are considered synonymous with I. longifolium (Wagner et al.
1990).
Isodendrion longifolium, a member of the violet family, is a
slender, straight shrub generally 0.6 to 2 m (2 to 7 ft) tall. The
hairless, somewhat leathery leaves are lance-shaped, 10 to 30 cm (4 to
12 in.) long, and 3.4 to 6.5 cm (1 to 3 in.) wide. The fragrant flowers
are perfect and are borne singly along the branches. The five petals
are purple, clawed, and somewhat unequal. The purple capsular fruit is
10 mm (0.4 in.) long. This species is distinguished from others in this
endemic Hawaiian genus by the shape of its leaves (Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically Isodendrion longifolium was known from scattered
locations on Kauai and the Waianae Mountains on Oahu (HHP 1994i1 to
1994i18; HPCC 1990a; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993). Currently I.
longifolium is known from 18 populations on Kauai and Oahu. On Kauai,
15 populations totalling 500 to 800 individuals are scattered over
ridges and valley slopes of northwestern Kauai. Eight populations occur
on private land and seven are found on State land, which includes Hono
O Na Pali NAR and the Na Pali Coast State Park (HHP 1994i3 to 1994i5,
1994i7 to 1994i13, 1994i15 to 1994i17; HPCC 1990a; Lorence and Flynn
1991, 1993). Three populations totalling 30 to 40 individuals are known
from Oahu. Two populations are found within Mt. Kaala NAR on State-
owned land in the Waianae Mountains, and the third population is found
in Makaua Gulch on private land in the Koolau Mountains (HHP 1994i2,
1994i14, 1994i18). The total current populations throughout the State
consist of fewer than 1,000 individuals, with most of the populations
and individuals occurring on Kauai. Isodendrion longifolium is found on
steep slopes, gulches, and stream banks in mixed mesic or wet ohia
forest, usually between 410 and 760 m (1,345 and 2,500 ft) elevation.
Associated plant taxa include 'ahakea, hame, Cyanea sp. (haha),
Hedyotis sp., Perrottetia sandwicensis (olomea), and Pittosporum sp.
(ho'awa) (HHP 1994i2 to 1994i8, 1994i10 to 1994i18; HPCC 1990a; Lorence
and Flynn 1991, 1993).
The major threats to Isodendrion longifolium are habitat
degradation and/or destruction by feral goats and pigs and competition
with various alien plant taxa. On Oahu, the Palikea Gulch population is
potentially threatened by overcollection and fire (HHP 1994i2, 1994i13,
1994i15 to 1994i17; HPCC 1990a; Lorence and Flynn 1993).
In 1912, J.F. Stokes collected a grass on Niihau that St. John
later named Panicum niihauense (St. John 1931). This species has been
maintained in the most recent treatment of Hawaiian members of the
genus (Davidse 1990).
Panicum niihauense, a member of the grass family, is a perennial
bunchgrass with unbranched culms 50 to 125 cm (20 to 49 in.) long. The
leaf blades are flat, 15 to 35 cm (6 to 14 in.) long and 0.7 to 1.9 cm
(0.3 to 0.7 in.) wide. The panicles (loosely branched inflorescences)
are 13 to 35 cm (5 to 14 in.) long. The panicle branches lie close to
the main stem of the inflorescence (not spreading outward), and the
spikelets are borne densely along the inflorescence branches. The
spikelets, which contain two flowers, are 2.6 to 3.2 mm (0.1 in.) long.
This species is distinguished from others in the genus by the shape of
the inflorescence branches, which are erect and appressed, and the
arrangement of the spikelets, which are densely clustered (Davidse
1990).
Panicum niihauense was known historically from Niihau and one
location on Kauai (HHP 1994j1 to 1994j3). Currently this species is
only known from State-owned land at Polihale State Park on Kauai. This
single population of 23 individuals is found scattered in sand dunes in
a coastal shrubland at between 9 and 15 m (30 and 50 ft) elevation.
Associated plant taxa include 'a'ali'i, Cassytha filiformis (kaunaoa
pehu), Prosopis pallida (kiawe), Scaevola sericea (naupaka), Sida
fallax ('ilima), and Vitex sp. (kolokolo kahakai) (HHP 1993, 1994j3).
The primary threats to the single known population of Panicum
niihauense are off-road vehicles, competition with alien plant taxa,
and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced
reproductive vigor due to the small number of individuals in one
remaining population (HHP 1993; HPCC 1992b; J. Lau and C. Russell,
pers. comms. 1994).
Phyllostegia parviflora was first described by Gaudichaud-Beaupre
as Prasium parviflorum based on a specimen collected on Oahu
(Hillebrand 1888). Later, Bentham transferred the species to
Phyllostegia and this is the name accepted in the current treatment of
Hawaiian members of the genus (Wagner et al. 1990). Currently two
varieties are recognized--var. parviflora and var. glabriuscula,
described by Gray in 1862 (Wagner et al. 1990). There is also a newly
discovered variety that has not yet been formally named (Wagner et al.
1990). These recent collections of P. parviflora from the Waianae
Mountains differ from the other varieties by several characters and
represent a new variety previously considered to be P. mollis var.
lydgatei (Wagner et al. 1990; Warren Wagner, Smithsonian Institution,
in litt., 1994; W. Wagner, pers. comm. 1994). Published names that
Wagner et al. (1990) consider to be synonymous with P. parviflora var.
parviflora include P. leptostachys, P. parviflora var. canescens, P.
parviflora var. gaudichaudii, and P. parviflora var. major (Wagner et
al. 1990).
Phyllostegia parviflora, a member of the mint family (Lamiaceae),
is a perennial herb. The egg-shaped to broadly egg-shaped, wrinkled
leaves are usually 19 to 33 cm (7.5 to 13 in.) long and 7.5 to 15.3 cm
(3 to 6 in.) wide. The leaf stalks are typically 6 to 13.5 cm (2.4 to
5.3 in.) long. Usually six flowers are arranged along a flowering
stalk. The corolla is white, sometimes tinged with purple, and about 9
to 13 mm (0.4 to 0.5 in.) long. The upper corolla lip is about 3 mm
(0.1 in.) long while the lower lip is about 6 to 9 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in.)
long. The fruits are nutlets. The species is distinguished from others
of the genus by the leaf shape and length of the leaf stalk and lower
corolla lip. P. p. var. glabriuscula has fewer glandular hairs in the
inflorescence, less pubescent leaves, and usually unbranched
inflorescences, as compared to P. p. var. parviflora. The newly
discovered variety of P. parviflora has shorter leaf stalks, spreading
hairs on the leaf stalks, and fewer gland-tipped hairs in the
inflorescence (Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically Phyllostegia parviflora was known from three islands--
Oahu, Hawaii, and Maui (HHP 1994x1 to 1994x3, 1994y1 to 1994y9, 1994z1,
1994z2; Sherff 1935; Wagner et al. 1990). This species is now known
only from two populations on Oahu. Phyllostegia parviflora var.
glabriuscula was only known from the island of Hawaii on private land
and has not been observed since the 1800s (HHP 1994x1 to 1994x3).
Phyllostegia parviflora var. parviflora was known from Oahu and Maui,
but is now known from only four plants in North Kaukonahua Stream in
the Koolau Mountains on Oahu, on State land leased by the DOD for the
Kawailoa Training Area (HHP 1994y9).
[[Page 53114]]
The new variety of P. parviflora is known from only 19 plants in North
Palawai Gulch within TNCH's Honouliuli Preserve (HHP 1994z1).
Phyllostegia parviflora is typically found on moderate to steep slopes
in diverse wet forest from 500 to 830 m (1,640 to 2,700 ft) elevation.
Native taxa associated with Phyllostegia parviflora include 'ohi'a,
Broussaisia arguta (kanawao), Mysine sp. (kolea), Pipturus albidus
(mamaki), and Cyrtandra sp. (haiwale) (HHP 1994y9, 1994z1; Wagner et
al. 1990).
The major threats to Phyllostegia parviflora are habitat
degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs, competition with several
alien plant taxa, and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring
events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of
remaining individuals and populations (HHP 1994y9, 1994z1; C. Russell,
pers. comm. 1994).
Hillebrand (1888) described and named Habenaria holochila based on
his collections and on material sent to him by J.M. Lydgate and V.
Knudsen. Subsequently, F.W. Kraenzlin transferred the species to the
genus Platanthera, resulting in the new combination Platanthera
holochila; this name is accepted in the current treatment of Hawaiian
members of the family (Kores 1979, Wagner et al. 1990). C.A. Luer
(1975) published the combination P. hyperborea var. viridiflora, now
considered synonymous with P. holochila (Wagner et al. 1990). The
specific epithet refers to the undivided lip of the flower.
Platanthera holochila, a member of the orchid family (Orchidaceae),
is an erect, deciduous herb. The stems arise from underground tubers
and are 15 to 60 cm (6 to 24 in.) long. The pale-green leaves,
generally 4 to 12 cm (2 to 5 in.) long and 1 to 3 cm (0.4 to 1 in.)
wide, are lance to egg-shaped. The greenish-yellow flowers occur in
open spikes. The back sepal is inversely egg-shaped and hooded and the
lateral sepals are erect and elliptic. The lateral petals, 2 to 2.5 cm
(1 in.) long, are irregularly egg-shaped and enclosed by the sepals.
The lowest petal is strap-like, about 3 mm (0.1 in.) long, with a 3 to
5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in.) long spur at the base. The fruit is an ellipsoid
capsule with six ribs. This is the only species of this genus that
occurs in the Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically Platanthera holochila was known from the Alakai Swamp
and Kaholuamano area and the Wahiawa Mountains on Kauai, the Koolau
Mountains on Oahu, scattered locations on Molokai, and various
locations on Maui (HHP 1994k1 to 1994k17). Currently P. holochila is
known from five locations on Kauai, Molokai, and Maui. Before the
devastation of Hurricane 'Iniki, on Kauai in September 1992, two
populations were known from the Alakai Swamp within the Alakai
Wilderness Preserve on State land (HHP 1994k4, 1994k8). One population,
last seen in 1977, was not seen when the location was revisited in
1989. The other population comprised 100 plantlets representing 3
clones before Hurricane 'Iniki, but was reduced to only 10 immature
plantlets representing 1 clone over a year after the hurricane (Perlman
1995). On Molokai, a single population of fewer than ten plants occurs
on private land in TNCH's Kamakou Preserve (HHP 1994k3). On Maui, three
populations are known--Hanaula, on State and private land, and TNCH's
Waikamoi and Kapunakea Preserves (HHP 1994k9, 1994k12, 1994k17). The 5
current populations comprise fewer than 35 individuals--1 individual on
Kauai; fewer than 10 on Molokai; and between 15 and 20 on Maui (HHP
1994k3, 1994k4, 1994k8, 1994k9, 1994k12, 1994k17). Platanthera
holochila is found in 'ohi'a-Dicranopteris linearis (uluhe) montane wet
forest or 'ohi'a mixed montane bog between 1,050 and 1,870 m (3,450 and
6,120 ft) elevation. Associated plant taxa include Cibotium sp.
(hapu'u), Coprosma ernodeoides (kukaenene), Oreobolus sp., Styphelia
sp. (pukiawe), and Vaccinium spp. ('ohelo) (HHP 1994k3, 1994k4, 1994k8,
1994k9, 1994k12, 1994k17).
The primary threats to Platanthera holochila are habitat
degradation and/or destruction by ungulates such as cattle and feral
pigs, competition with alien plant taxa, overcollection, and a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events due to the small number of
remaining populations and individuals (HHP 1994k4, 1994k9, 1994k12,
1994k17; C. Russell, pers. comm. 1994).
While hiking the Schofield-Waikane Trail on Oahu, St. John
collected a plant that he and Edward Hosaka described in 1935 as
Sanicula purpurea. Other published names considered synonymous with
this species include S. lobata and S. sandwicensis (Constance and
Affolter 1990). The specific epithet refers to the purple petals.
Sanicula purpurea, a member of the parsley family (Apiaceae), is a
stout perennial herb, 8 to 36 cm (3 to 14 in.) tall, arising from a
massive stem. The basal leaves are numerous and leathery in texture.
Two to 8 cm (0.8 to 3 in.) wide, the leaves are kidney-shaped or
circular to egg-heart-shaped, with three to seven lobes. The small
flowers are purple or cream-colored with a purple tinge and occur in
branched terminal clusters, each of which contains six to ten flowers.
Each flower cluster contains one to three perfect flowers and five to
seven staminate flowers. The nearly spherical fruits are covered with
prickles. This species is distinguished from others in the genus by the
number of flowers per cluster and by the color of the petals (Constance
and Affolter 1990).
Historically Sanicula purpurea was known from six scattered
locations along the Koolau Mountains of Oahu and from four locations on
West Maui (HHP 1994L1 to 1994L10). This species is currently known from
one population in Oahu's Koolau Mountains on the boundary of State land
and the federally owned Schofield Barracks Military Reservation;
another population, last seen on the summit between Aiea and Waimano in
1985, was not seen during a 1987 survey and may no longer be extant. On
West Maui, three populations are currently known on State land,
including West Maui NAR, and one population is known from private land
(HHP 1994L1 to 1994L10). The number of plants of this species totals an
estimated 130 to 210 individuals. This species typically grows in open
'ohi'a mixed montane bogs between 700 and 1,625 m (2,300 and 5,330 ft)
elevation. Associated plant taxa include pukiawe, Argyroxiphium
grayanum (greensword), Lagenifera sp., Machaerina sp. ('uki), and
Oreobolus furcatus (HHP 1994L1, 1994L6 to 1994L9).
Habitat degradation by feral pigs and a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing populations are the major threats to Sanicula
purpurea. On Oahu, the Kaukonahua-Kahana Divide population is
additionally threatened by competition with an alien grass, Axonopus
fissifolius (narrow-leaved carpetgrass), and potentially by military
activities (HHP 1994L1, 1994L9).
Schiedea hookeri was first described by Gray in 1854 based on a
specimen collected on Oahu by Archibald Menzies of the U.S. Exploring
Expedition (Wagner et al. 1990). Later, Earl Sherff described S.
hookeri var. acrisepala and S. hookeri var. intercedens, which are now
considered synonyms of S. hookeri (Sherff 1944, 1945; Wagner et al.
1990).
Schiedea hookeri, a member of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), is
a sprawling or clumped perennial herb. The stems, 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 to
1.6 ft) long, curve slightly upward or lie close to the ground and
often produce matted clumps. The thin, opposite leaves, 3 to
[[Page 53115]]
8 cm (1.2 to 3.2 in.) long and 0.4 to 1.5 cm (0.2 to 0.6 in.) wide, are
narrowly lance-shaped to narrowly elliptic. The apetalous, perfect
flowers are borne in open branched inflorescences, which are hairy,
somewhat sticky, and 5 to 22 cm (2 to 9 in.) long. The lance-shaped
sepals are green to purple and 3 to 4.5 mm (1.2 to 1.8 in.) long. The
fruit is a capsule about 3 mm (0.1 in.) long. This species is
distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by its open,
hairy, and sometimes sticky inflorescence, and by the size of the
capsules (Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically Schiedea hookeri was known from the Waianae Mountains
of Oahu and Haleakala on Maui (HHP 1994m1 to 1994m17). Currently this
species is known from 11 populations in Oahu's Waianae Mountains.
Between 220 and 330 individuals are scattered on slopes and ridges from
Kaluakauila Gulch to Lualualei Valley--1 population on private land in
TNCH's Honouliuli Preserve; 3 populations on City and County of
Honolulu land; 3 populations on State land, 1 of which is on land
leased by the DOD for Makua Military Reservation; and 4 populations on
Federal land (3 on Lualualei Naval Magazine and 1 on Schofield Barracks
Military Reservation) (HHP 1994m1, 1994m5, 1994m8, 1994m9, 1994m11 to
1994m17). Schiedea hookeri is usually found in diverse mesic or dry
lowland forest, often with 'ohi'a or lama dominant, between 365 and 790
m (1,200 and 2,600 ft) elevation. One population is reported at an
elevation of 850 to 900 m (2,800 to 2,950 ft). Associated plant taxa
include 'a'ali'i, Artemisia australis ('ahinahina), Bidens sp.
(ko'oko'olau), Carex meyenii, and Eragrostis grandis (kawelu) (HHP
1994m5, 1994m6, 1994m9, 1994m11 to 1994m17).
The primary threats to Schiedea hookeri are habitat degradation
and/or destruction by feral goats and pigs and competition with alien
plant taxa. The Kaluakauila Gulch population is also potentially
threatened by fire and military activities (HHP 1994m5, 1994m8, 1994m11
to 1994m13, 1994m15 to 1994m17).
Schiedea kauaiensis was first collected by Otto Degener and Amy
Greenwell in 1952. Degener and Sherff considered this collection from
Kauai to be a new variety of S. nuttallii, previously known only from
Oahu, and named it S. nuttallii var. pauciflora (Sherff 1952). In 1988,
St. John elevated this variety to species level, naming it S.
kauaiensis. Wagner et al. (1990) recombined this species with S.
nuttallii, without recognizing any varieties. The authorities on this
endemic Hawaiian genus, Stephen Weller, Ann Sakai, and Warren Wagner,
now accept S. kauaiensis as a distinct species (Stephen Weller,
University of California, Irvine, in litt. 1994). Weller, Sakai, and
Wagner consider S. wichmanii St. John to be synonymous with S.
kauaiensis (S. Weller, in litt. 1994).
Schiedea kauaiensis, a member of the pink family, is a generally
hairless, erect subshrub, with stems normally 0.3 to 1.5 m (1 to 5 ft)
long. The green, sometimes purple-tinged leaves are opposite, narrowly
egg-shaped or lance-shaped to narrowly or broadly elliptic, up to 13 cm
(5 in.) long, and 3.5 cm (1.4 in.) wide. The apetalous, perfect flowers
are borne in open branched inflorescences, moderately covered with
fine, short, curly, white hairs. The lance-shaped sepals, 2 to 3.8 mm
(0.08 to 1.5 in.) long, are green or sometimes purple-tinged. The fruit
is a capsule. The round to kidney-shaped seeds are about 2 mm (0.08
in.) long. This species is distinguished from others in this endemic
Hawaiian genus by its habit, larger leaves, the hairiness of the
inflorescence, the number of flowers in each inflorescence, larger
flowers, and larger seeds (Wagner et al. 1990; S. Weller, in litt.
1994).
Historically Schiedea kauaiensis was known from the northwestern
side of Kauai, from Papa`a to Mahanaloa. It was thought to be extinct
until the 2 currently known populations were found, which total about
15 plants. Both populations occur on State land--the Mahanaloa Valley
population within Kuia NAR and the Kalalau Valley population within Na
Pali Coast State Park. Schiedea kauaiensis typically grows in diverse
mesic forest on steep slopes. Associated plant taxa include Psychotria
hexandra (kopiko), Exocarpus luteolus (heau), lama, the federally
threatened Peucedanum sandwicense (makou), and Euphorbia haeleeleana
('akoko) (HHP 1994n18; HPCC 1992c2; S. Weller, in litt. 1994).
Threats to Schiedea kauaiensis include habitat degradation and/or
destruction by feral pigs, goats, and deer; competition from several
alien plant taxa; landslides; and a risk of extinction from naturally
occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the low
number of individuals in only two known populations (HHP 1994n18, HPCC
1992c2).
In 1834, Thomas Nuttall collected a specimen of Schiedea nuttallii
in the Koolau Mountains of Oahu. Ten years later, William Hooker
described this species (Mill et al. 1988, Nagata 1980). Other published
names considered synonymous with S. nuttallii include S. nuttallii var.
lihuensis and S. oahuensis (Wagner et al. 1990; S. Weller, in litt.
1994).
Schiedea nuttallii, a member of the pink family, is a generally
hairless, erect subshrub, with stems normally 0.3 to 1.5 m (1 to 5 ft)
long, and internodes usually 0.8 to 4 cm (0.3 to 1.6 in.) long. The
green, sometimes purple-tinged leaves are opposite, narrowly egg-shaped
or lance-shaped to narrowly or broadly elliptic, 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4
in.) long, and 1.5 to 2 cm (0.6 to 0.8 in.) wide. The apetalous,
perfect flowers are borne in open branched inflorescences, normally 20
to 25 cm (8 to 10 in.) long. The lance-shaped sepals, 2 to 3.8 mm (0.08
to 1.5 in.) long, are green or sometimes purple-tinged. The fruit is a
capsule. The round to kidney-shaped seeds are about 1 mm (0.04 in.)
long. This species is distinguished from others in this endemic
Hawaiian genus by its habit, length of the stem internodes, length of
the inflorescence, number of flowers per inflorescence, smaller leaves,
smaller flowers, and smaller seeds (Wagner et al. 1990; S. Weller, in
litt. 1994).
Historically Schiedea nuttallii was known from scattered locations
on southeastern Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui (HHP 1994n1 to 1994n17;
HPCC 1992c1; S. Weller, in litt. 1994). One population of S. nuttallii
is found on Kauai east of Haupu Peak on private land (HHP 1994n10, HPCC
1992c1). Five populations are found on Oahu--Kahanahaiki Valley, on
State land leased by the DOD for Makua Military Reservation; two
populations within the State owned Pahole NAR; and Ekahanui Gulch, on
private land in TNCH's Honouliuli Preserve (HHP 1994n2 to 1994n4,
1994n14, 1994n17). The statewide total of 6 populations harbors fewer
than 75 individuals of this species, with between 10 and 50 individuals
on Kauai and about 25 on Oahu (HHP 1994n2 to 1994n4, 1994n10, 1994n14,
1994n17; HPCC 1992c1; S. Weller, in litt. 1994). Schiedea nuttallii
typically grows in diverse lowland mesic forest, often with 'ohi'a
dominant, between 415 and 730 m (1,360 and 2,400 ft) elevation. The
population on Kauai is found at 790 m (2,590 ft) elevation. Associated
plant taxa include hame, kopiko, olomea, papala kepau, and Hedyotis
acuminata (au) (HHP 1994n2 to 1994n4, 1994n10, 1994n14, 1994n17,
1994n18; HPCC 1992c1).
Habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral ungulates such as
pigs and goats, competition with several alien plant taxa, landslides,
potential fire, potential military activities, and a risk of extinction
from naturally
[[Page 53116]]
occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor, due to the small
number of populations and individuals, seriously threaten Schiedea
nuttallii (HHP 1994n2, 1994n17; HPCC 1992c1; C. Russell, pers. comm.
1994).
Previous Federal Action
Federal action on these plants began as a result of section 12 of
the Endangered Species Act of 1973, which directed the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on those plants considered
to be endangered, threatened, or extinct in the United States. This
report, designated as House Document No. 94-51, was presented to
Congress on January 9, 1975. Seven of the 14 taxa were considered to be
endangered in that document and 2 were considered to be threatened. On
July 1, 1975, the Service published a notice in the Federal Register
(40 FR 27823) of its acceptance of the Smithsonian report as a petition
within the context of section 4(c)(2) (now section 4(b)(3)) of the Act,
and giving notice of its intent to review the status of the plant taxa
named therein. The Service published an updated notice of review for
plants on December 15, 1980 (45 FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR
39525), February 21, 1990 (55 FR 6183), and September 30, 1993 (58 FR
51144). Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana (as C. grimesiana var.
mauiensis and var. munroi), Euphorbia haeleeleana, Isodendrion
laurifolium, I. longifolium, and Platanthera holochila were considered
Category 1 species in the 1980 and 1985 notices of review. Category 1
species, now referred to as candidate species (61 FR 7597), are those
for which the Service has on file substantial information on biological
vulnerability and threats to support issuance of a proposd rule to list
as threatened or endangered but for which listing proposals have not
yet been published because they are precluded by other listing
activities. Since the 1993 notice, new information suggests that the
nine taxa not previously considered Category 1 species are sufficiently
restricted in numbers and distribution and imminently threatened and
therefore warrant listing.
On October 2, 1995, the Service published in the Federal Register
(60 FR 51417) a proposal to list 13 plant taxa from the Hawaiian
Islands as endangered and one taxon, Isodendrion longifolium, as
threatened. This proposal was based primarily on information supplied
by the Hawaii Heritage Program, the National Tropical Botanical Garden,
and observations by botanists and naturalists. Based on comments
received in response to the proposal (See Comments and Recommendations
below) the Service now determines 13 taxa from the Hawaiian Islands to
be endangered and 1 taxon to be threatened.
The processing of this final rule follows the Service's listing
priority guidance published in the Federal Register on May 16, 1996 (61
FR 24722). The guidance clarifies the order in which the Service will
process rulemakings following two related events: (1) the lifting, on
April 26, 1996, of the moratorium on final listings imposed on April
10, 1995 (Public Law 104-6), and (2) the restoration of funding for
listing through passage of the omnibus budget reconciliation law on
April 26, 1996, following severe funding constraints imposed by a
number of continuing resolutions between November 1995 and April 1996.
The guidance calls for prompt processing of final rules containing
species facing threats of high magnitude. The 14 species in this rule
face high magnitude threats.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
In the October 2, 1995, proposed rule and associated notifications,
all interested parties were requested to submit factual reports or
information that might contribute to the development of a final listing
decision. The public comment period ended on December 1, 1995.
Appropriate State agencies, county governments, Federal agencies,
scientific organizations, and other interested parties were contacted
and requested to comment. Newspaper notices inviting public comment
were published in the Hawaii Tribune-Herald and the Kauai Times on
October 18, 1995, the Garden Island on October 19, 1995, and the
Honolulu Advertiser and the Maui News on October 20, 1995. Four letters
of comment were received supporting the listing of these taxa from the
Hawaiian Islands. One letter requested further information on the
locations of these species and one letter provided additional
information which has been incorporated into this final rule. No
requests for public hearings were received.
Pursuant to the Service's policy on peer review (59 FR 34270), the
expert opinions of three appropriate and independent specialists were
also solicited regarding pertinent scientific or commercial data and
assumptions relating to the taxonomy, population models, and supportive
biological and ecological information for these 14 taxa. No responses
from peer reviewers were received.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
After a thorough review and consideration of all information
available, the Service has determined that Achyranthes mutica, Cenchrus
agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, Cyperus
trachysanthos, Euphorbia haeleeleana, Isodendrion laurifolium, Panicum
niihauense, Phyllostegia parviflora, Platanthera holochila, Sanicula
purpurea, Schiedea hookeri, Schiedea kauaiensis, and Schiedea nuttallii
should be classified as endangered species and Isodendrion longifolium
should be classified as a threatened species. Procedures found at
section 4 of the Act and regulations implementing the listing
provisions of the Act (50 CFR part 424) were followed. A species may be
determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more
of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1). The threats facing
the 14 taxa in this final rule are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2.--Summary of Threats
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alien mammals
Species ---------------------------------------------- Alien Substrate Fire Human Limited numbers
Cattle Deer Goats Pigs Rats plants loss impact
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Achyranthes mutica...................... X ....... X ....... ....... X ......... ....... ........ X1,3*
Cenchrus agrimonioides.................. P ....... P X ....... X X P P X2,3
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana....... ........ X X X P X X P P X3
Cyperus trachysanthos................... ........ ....... X ....... ....... X ......... ....... ........ X1
Euphorbia haeleeleana................... ........ X X X X X ......... P P ........................
Isodendrion laurifolium................. ........ X X X ....... X ......... ....... P ........................
Isodendrion longifolium................. ........ ....... X X ....... X ......... P P ........................
Panicum niihauense...................... ........ ....... ....... ....... ....... X ......... ....... X X1,3
[[Page 53117]]
Phyllostegia parviflora................. ........ ....... ....... X ....... X ......... ....... ........ X1,3
Platanthera holochila................... X ....... ....... X ....... X ......... ....... X X1,3
Sanicula purpurea....................... ........ ....... ....... X ....... X ......... ....... P X1
Schiedea hookeri........................ ........ ....... X X ....... X ......... P P ........................
Schiedea kauaiensis..................... ........ X X X ....... X X ....... ........ X1,3
Schiedea nuttallii...................... ........ ....... X X ....... X X P P X2,3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key
X--Immediate and significant threat.
P--Potential threat.
*--No more than 100 individuals and/or no more than 5 populations.
1--No more than 5 populations.
2--No more than 10 populations.
3--No more than 100 individuals.
These factors and their application to Achyranthes mutica A. Gray
(No common name (NCN)), Cenchrus agrimonioides Trin. (kamanomano),
Cyanea grimesiana Gaud. ssp. grimesiana (haha), Cyperus trachysanthos
Hook. & Arnott (pu`uka`a), Euphorbia haeleeleana Herbst (NCN),
Isodendrion laurifolium A. Gray (aupaka), Isodendrion longifolium A.
Gray (aupaka), Panicum niihauense St. John (lau `ehu), Phyllostegia
parviflora (Gaud.) Benth. (NCN), Platanthera holochila (Hillebr.)
Kraenzl. (NCN), Sanicula purpurea St. John & Hosaka (NCN), Schiedea
hookeri A. Gray (NCN), Schiedea kauaiensis St. John (NCN), and Schiedea
nuttallii Hook. (NCN) are as follows:
A. The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range. Native vegetation on all of the
main Hawaiian Islands has undergone extreme alteration because of past
and present land management practices including ranching, deliberate
alien animal and plant introductions, and agricultural development
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Wagner et al. 1985). The Northwestern Hawaiian
Islands have undergone similar alteration, but to a lesser degree. The
primary threats facing the 14 plant taxa included in this rule are
destruction and modification of habitat by feral animals and
competition with alien plants (see Factor E).
Thirteen of the 14 taxa in this rule are threatened by feral
animals. Animals such as pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, and
cattle were introduced either by the early Hawaiians (pigs) or more
recently by European settlers (all ungulate species) for food and/or
commercial ranching activities. Over the 200 years following their
introduction, their numbers increased and the adverse impacts of feral
ungulates on native vegetation have become increasingly apparent.
Beyond the direct effect of trampling and grazing on native plants,
feral ungulates have contributed significantly to the heavy erosion
taking place on most of the main Hawaiian islands (Cuddihy and Stone
1990).
Pigs, originally native to Europe, Africa, and Asia, were
introduced to Hawaii by the Polynesian ancestors of Hawaiians, and
later by western immigrants. The pigs escaped domestication and invaded
primarily wet and mesic forests of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and
Hawaii. Pigs pose an immediate threat to one or more populations of 11
of the taxa in wet and mesic habitats. While foraging, pigs root and
trample the forest floor, encouraging the establishment of alien plants
in the newly disturbed soil. Pigs also disseminate alien plant seeds
through their feces and on their bodies, accelerating the spread of
alien plants through native forests (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Stone
1985). Pigs are vectors of Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) and
Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry), which threaten several of
the taxa in this final rule (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Smith 1985, Stone
1985). Pigs have also invaded open bogs where they uproot native plants
and create conditions that allow alien plant species to invade (Gagne
and Cuddihy 1990). Sanicula purpurea and the Alakai Swamp population of
Platanthera holochila are currently threatened by pigs in bogs (HHP
1994k4, 1994k8, 1994L9). On Kauai, one population of Isodendrion
laurifolium and two populations of I. longifolium have sustained loss
of individual plants and/or habitat as a result of feral pig activities
(HHP 1994h21, 1994i13, 1994i15; Lorence and Flynn 1993). The following
plant taxa on Oahu are threatened by pigs--three populations of
Cenchrus agrimonioides, two of Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, two
of Euphorbia haeleeleana, three of I. laurifolium, one of I.
longifolium, the two remaining populations of Phyllostegia parviflora,
one population of Sanicula purpurea, three of Schiedea hookeri, both
populations of Schiedea kauaiensis, and one of Schiedea nuttallii (HHP
1994d8, 1994d11, 1994d12, 1994e1, 1994e34, 1994g10, 1994g13, 1994h16,
1994h18, 1994h20, 1994i2, 1994L1, 1994m5, 1994m12, 1994m13, 1994n2,
1994n18, 1994y1, 1994z1; HPCC 1992c2). On Maui, feral pigs are a threat
to the Waikamoi and Kapunakea Preserves populations of Platanthera
holochila, and the Eke Crater population of Sanicula purpurea (HHP
1994k12, 1994k17, 1994l9).
Goats, native to the Middle East and India, were first successfully
introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1792. Feral goats now occupy a
wide variety of habitats from lowland dry forests to montane grasslands
on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, where they consume native
vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, accelerate erosion, and
promote the invasion of alien plants (Scott et al. 1986, Stone 1985,
van Riper and van Riper 1982). One or more populations of nine of the
taxa are currently threatened by direct damage from feral goats. On
Kauai, goats are contributing to the decline of one population each of
Cyperus trachysanthos, Isodendrion laurifolium and I. longifolium and
four populations of Euphorbia haeleeleana. Goats threaten the two known
populations of Schiedea kauaiensis and the one population of S.
nuttallii on Kauai (HHP 1989b, 1994g1, 1994g4, 1994g12, 1994g14,
1994h21, 1994i5; HPCC 1992c2). On Oahu, encroaching urbanization and
hunting pressure tend to concentrate the goat populations in the dry
upper slopes of the Waianae Mountains, where one population of
[[Page 53118]]
Euphorbia haeleeleana, three populations of I. laurifolium, and two
populations of S. hookeri exist (HHP 1994g13, 1994h16, 1994h18,
1994h20, 1994m13, 1994m15). The goat population in the Waianae area is
apparently increasing in State game management areas and extending into
adjacent areas, becoming an even greater threat to the rare plants that
grow there. On Kukuinui Ridge, Molokai, goats threaten one of that
island's two known populations of Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana
(HHP 1994e7). On Maui, goats pose a potential threat to that island's
only known population of Cenchrus agrimonioides (R. Hobdy, pers. comm.
1994). On Hawaii, the only known population of Achyranthes mutica is
presently threatened by goats (HPCC 1992a).
In 1920, a group of 12 axis deer was introduced to the island of
Lanai; about 60 years later, the population was estimated at 2,800
(Tomich 1986). The axis deer population is presently actively managed
for recreational hunting by the State Department of Land and Natural
Resources (DLNR). Axis deer degrade habitat by trampling and
overgrazing vegetation, which removes ground cover and exposes the soil
to erosion (J. Lau, pers. comm. 1994). Extensive red erosional scars
caused by decades of deer activity are evident on Lanai. Activity of
axis deer threatens one of the two populations of Cyanea grimesiana
ssp. grimesiana on Lanai (HHP 1994e37).
Black-tailed deer were first introduced to Kauai in 1961 for the
purpose of sport hunting and today probably number well over 500
animals. The deer are presently confined to the western side of the
island, where they feed on a variety of native and alien plants (van
Riper and van Riper 1982). Black-tailed deer threaten two populations
of Euphorbia haeleeleana, including almost half of the known
individuals on Kauai, and half of the known populations of Isodendrion
laurifolium on Kauai. Black-tailed deer also threaten other rare plants
within Kuia NAR, potentially threatening one population of Schiedea
kauaiensis (HHP 1994g1, 1994g7, 1994h6, 1994h9, 1994h11, 1994n18).
Large-scale ranching of cattle in the Hawaiian Islands began in the
middle of the 19th century on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and
Hawaii. Large ranches, tens of thousands of acres in size, developed on
East Maui and Hawaii (Cuddihy and Stone 1990) where most of the State's
large ranches still exist today. Degradation of native forests used for
ranching activities became evident soon after full-scale ranching
began. The negative impact of cattle on Hawaii's ecosystems is similar
to that described for goats and deer (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Stone
1985). On Maui, cattle ranching is the primary agricultural activity on
the west and southwest slopes of East Maui and in lowland regions of
West Maui. On West Maui, the Hanaula population of Platanthera
holochila is threatened by grazing cattle (HHP 1994k9). Cattle pose a
potential threat to that island's only known population of Cenchrus
agrimonioides (R. Hobdy, pers. comm. 1994). The only known population
of Achyranthes mutica, in the Keawewai Stream area on the island of
Hawaii, is also threatened by cattle ranching activities (HPCC 1992a).
On Oahu, habitat disturbance caused by human activities may pose a
threat to rare plant populations that grow on lands on which military
training exercises and ground maneuvers are occasionally conducted.
However, because most of the taxa grow on moderate to steep slopes,
ridges, and gulches, habitat disturbance is probably restricted to foot
and helicopter traffic. Trampling by ground troops associated with
training activities, and construction, maintenance, and utilization of
helicopter landing and drop-off sites could affect populations of seven
of the taxa (Cenchrus agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana,
Euphorbia haeleeleana, Isodendrion laurifolium, Sanicula purpurea,
Schiedea hookeri, and Schiedea nuttallii) that occur on land leased or
owned by the Army (HHP 1994d11, 1994e34, 1994g5, 1994g6, 1994g10,
1994h17, 1994L1, 1994m8, 1994m12, 1994n14; Wagner et al. 1985).
B. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes. Increased interest in collecting for scientific
or horticultural purposes or visits by individuals interested in seeing
rare plants could result from publicity following the publication of
this final rule. This interest potentially threatens all of the taxa,
but would seriously impact the ten taxa whose low numbers and/or few
populations make them especially vulnerable to disturbance (Achyranthes
mutica, Cenchrus agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana,
Cyperus trachysanthos, Panicum niihauense, Phyllostegia parviflora,
Platanthera holochila, Sanicula purpurea, Schiedea kauaiensis, and
Schiedea nuttallii). Such disturbances could also promote erosion and
greater ingression of alien plant species. Some taxa, such as Cenchrus
agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, Isodendrion
longifolium, Panicum niihauense, and Platanthera holochila, have well-
known populations, or populations close to trails or roads, that are
possibly threatened by trampling or by overcollection (HHP 1994d1,
1994e1, 1994i2, 1994k9). One individual of P. holochila died in the
late 1980s after a portion of the plant was collected for scientific
purposes (Marie Bruegmann, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in litt.
1995).
C. Disease and predation. Disease is not known to be a significant
threat to any of the taxa. Evidence of predation on Isodendrion
laurifolium by deer is documented on Kauai (HHP 1994h6, 1994h11). While
there is no evidence of predation on the other 13 taxa, none of them
are known to be unpalatable to cattle, deer, or goats. Predation is
therefore a possible threat to taxa growing at sites where those
animals have been reported (Achyranthes mutica, Cyanea grimesiana ssp.
grimesiana, Cyperus trachysanthos, Euphorbia haeleeleana, Isodendrion
laurifolium, I. longifolium, Platanthera holochila, Schiedea hookeri,
and S. kauaiensis) (see Factor A). Feral pigs not only destroy native
vegetation through their rooting activities and dispersal of alien
plant seeds, but they also feed on plants, preferring the pithy
interior of large tree ferns and fleshy-stemmed plants from the
bellflower family (Stone 1985, Stone and Loope 1987). Although there is
no conclusive evidence of predation on Cyanea grimesiana ssp.
grimesiana, a member of the bellflower family, it is not known to be
unpalatable to pigs. Predation is therefore a possible threat to this
taxon in areas where pigs have been reported (HHP 1994e1, 1994e34).
Two rat species, the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the Polynesian
rat (R. exulans), and to a lesser extent other introduced rodents, eat
large, fleshy fruits and strip the bark of some native plants,
including plants in the bellflower family (Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Tomich 1986, Wagner et al. 1985; J. Lau, pers. comm. 1994). The largest
population of Euphorbia haeleeleana on Oahu is seriously threatened by
rat predation (HHP 1994g5). It is possible that rats eat the fruits of
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, which produces fleshy fruit and
stems and grows in areas where rats occur (J. Lau, pers. comm. 1994).
D. The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms. Of the 14 taxa
in this final rule, 10 have populations located on private land, 12 on
State land, 3 on City and County of Honolulu land, and 9 on land under
Federal jurisdiction. Of those under Federal jurisdiction, four taxa
have populations
[[Page 53119]]
that occur on land owned by the Federal government and six on land
leased to the Federal government by the State. While 12 of the taxa
occur in more than 1 of those 4 ownership categories, Achyranthes
mutica is known only on private land and Panicum niihauense is found
only on State land.
Eight of the taxa have one or more populations in State NARs, where
rules and regulations for the protection of resources apply (Hawaii
Revised Statutes (HRS), sect. 195-5). The majority of the populations
of the 14 taxa are located on land classified within conservation
districts and owned by the State of Hawaii or private companies or
individuals. Regardless of the owner, lands in these districts are
regarded as necessary for the protection of endemic biological
resources, and maintenance or enhancement of the conservation of
natural resources. Activities permitted in conservation districts are
chosen by considering how best to make multiple use of the land (HRS,
sect. 205-2). Some uses, such as maintaining animals for hunting, are
based on policy decisions, while others, such as preservation of
endangered species, are mandated by both Federal and State laws.
Requests for amendments to district boundaries or variances within
existing classifications can be made by government agencies and private
landowners (HRS, sect. 205-4). Before decisions about these requests
are made, the impact of the proposed reclassification on ``preservation
or maintenance of important natural systems or habitat'' (HRS, sects.
205-4, 205-17) as well as the maintenance of natural resources is
required to be taken into account (HRS, sects. 205-2, 205-4). Before
any proposed land use that will occur on State land, is funded in part
or whole by county or State funds, or will occur within land classified
as a conservation district, an environmental assessment is required to
determine whether the environment will be significantly affected (HRS,
chapt. 343). If it is found that an action will have a significant
effect, preparation of a full Environmental Impact Statement is
required. Hawaii environmental policy, and thus approval of land use,
is required by law to safeguard `` * * * the State's unique natural
environmental characteristics * * * '' (HRS, sect. 344-3(1)). The
Hawaii DLNR is mandated to initiate changes in conservation district
boundaries to include ``the habitat of rare native species of flora and
fauna within the conservation district'' (HRS, sect. 195D-5.1). Six of
the taxa in this final rule are threatened by four plants considered by
the State of Hawaii to be noxious weeds. The State has provisions and
funding available for eradication and control of noxious weeds on State
and private land in conservation districts and other areas (HRS, chapt.
152; Hawaii Department of Agriculture (DOA) 1981, 1991).
Despite the existence of State laws and regulations that protect
Hawaii's native plants, their enforcement is difficult due to limited
funding and personnel. Federal listing of these 14 plant taxa would
reinforce and supplement the protection available under the State Act
and other laws.
Listing under the Federal Act would trigger many additional State
law protections. Hawaii's endangered species act states, ``Any species
of aquatic life, wildlife, or land plant that has been determined to be
an endangered species pursuant to the [Federal] Endangered Species Act
shall be deemed to be an endangered species under the provisions of
this chapter * * * '' (HRS, sect. 195D-4(a)). Therefore, Federal
listing automatically invokes listing under Hawaii State law. State law
prohibits cutting, collecting, uprooting, destroying, injuring, or
possessing any listed species of plant on State or private land, or
attempting to engage in any such conduct. The State law encourages
conservation of such species by State agencies and triggers other State
regulations to protect the species (HRS, sect. 195AD-4 and 5). State
laws relating to the conservation of biological resources allow for the
acquisition of land as well as the development and implementation of
programs concerning the conservation of biological resources (HRS,
sect. 195D-5(a)). The State also may enter into agreements with Federal
agencies to administer and manage any area required for the
conservation, management, enhancement, or protection of endangered
species (HRS, sect. 195D-5(c)). Funds for these activities could be
made available under section 6 of the Act (State Cooperative
Agreements).
E. Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued
existence. All 14 of the taxa in this final rule are threatened by
competition with one or more alien plant taxa (see Table 2). The most
significant of these are Lantana camara (lantana), Psidium cattleianum
(strawberry guava), Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry), Rubus
rosifolius (thimbleberry), Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse), Grevillea
robusta (silk oak), Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass), Paspalum
conjugatum (Hilo grass), Psidium guajava (common guava), Ageratina
adenophora (Maui pamakani), and Ageratina riparia (Hamakua pamakani). A
number of other alien plant taxa also pose significant threats to
populations of the plants in this final rule.
Lantana camara (lantana), native to the West Indies, is an
aggressive, thicket-forming shrub that produces chemicals that inhibit
the growth of other plant species. Lantana can now be found on all of
the main islands in mesic forests, dry shrublands, and other dry,
disturbed habitats (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Smith 1985, Wagner et al.
1990). On Kauai, lantana poses a threat to two populations of Euphorbia
haeleeleana and one population of Isodendrion laurifolium within Kuia
NAR, three other populations of E. haeleeleana, three other populations
of I. laurifolium, and one population of I. longifolium. In the Waianae
Mountains of Oahu, one population each of Cenchrus agrimonioides and
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana and three populations of Schiedea
hookeri are immediately threatened by this shrub (HHP 1994d8, 1994e34,
1994g1, 1994g3, 1994g7, 1994g14, 1994h9, 1994h11, 1994h15, 1994h21,
1994m13, 1994m15, 1994m17; HPCC 1993b; Lorence and Flynn 1993).
Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava), an invasive shrub or small
tree native to tropical America, has become widely naturalized on all
of the main Hawaiian islands, forming dense stands that exclude other
plant species in disturbed areas (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). This alien
plant grows primarily in mesic and wet habitats and is dispersed mainly
by feral pigs and fruit-eating birds (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990).
Strawberry guava is considered to be one of the greatest alien plant
threats to Hawaiian rain forests and is known to pose a direct threat
to at least one population each of Euphorbia haeleeleana and
Isodendrion laurifolium and four populations of I. longifolium on the
island of Kauai (HHP 1994g7, 1994h11, 1994i15, 1994i16; Lorence and
Flynn 1991, 1993). Strawberry guava is a major invader of forests in
the Waianae and Koolau Mountains of Oahu, where it often forms single-
species stands. It poses an immediate threat to two populations each of
Cenchrus agrimonioides and I. laurifolium and one population each of
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, Euphorbia haeleeleana, I.
laurifolium, I. longifolium, and Schiedea hookeri (HHP 1994d8, 1994d12,
1994e34, 1994g13, 1994h18, 1994h20, 1994i2, 1994m12). On Lanai, this
invasive alien plant threatens one of that island's populations of
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana (HHP 1994e37).
[[Page 53120]]
Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry), introduced to Hawaii
before 1911, is a fast-growing tree or shrub invading most mesic to wet
lowland areas of the major Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1990).
Christmas berry is distributed mainly by feral pigs and fruit-eating
birds and forms dense thickets that shade out and displace other plants
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Smith 1985, Stone 1985). It is a major
component of the mesic forests of the Waianae and Koolau Mountains of
Oahu. Two-thirds of the Cenchrus agrimonioides populations, one-third
of the Isodendrion laurifolium populations, 1 of 2 known populations of
Phyllostegia parviflora, and 6 of 11 populations of Schiedea hookeri
are negatively affected by this invasive plant (HHP 1994d8, 1994d11,
1994d12, 1994d14, 1994h2, 1994h16, 1994h18, 1994h20, 1994m5, 1994m11,
1994m15 to 1994m17; 1994y1).
Rubus rosifolius (thimbleberry), native to Asia, is naturalized in
disturbed mesic to wet forest on all of the main Hawaiian Islands
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990). On Kauai, this shrub poses a threat to the
largest population of Euphorbia haeleeleana, two populations of
Isodendrion laurifolium, five populations of I. longifolium, and one
population of Schiedea kauaiensis (HHP 1994g1, 1994h9, 1994h11,
1994i13, 1994i15 to 1994i17; HPCC 1992c2; Lorence and Flynn 1993). One
of the two populations of Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana on Lanai is
threatened by thimbleberry (HHP 1994e37).
Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse), a noxious shrub native to tropical
America, is found in mesic to wet forests on at least six islands in
Hawaii (Almeda 1990, Hawaii Department of Agriculture 1981, Smith
1992). Koster's curse was first reported on Oahu in 1941 and had spread
through much of the Koolau Mountains by the early 1960s. Koster's curse
spread to the Waianae Mountains around 1970 and is now widespread
throughout the southern half of that mountain range. This noxious plant
forms a dense understory, shading out other plants and hindering plant
regeneration (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). In the Waianae Mountains of
Oahu, Koster's curse poses a serious threat to two populations of
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, one population of Isodendrion
longifolium, the largest population of Phyllostegia parviflora, and one
of the largest populations of Schiedea hookeri. Koster's curse also
threatens one population of I. laurifolium in Oahu's Koolau Mountains.
This prolific alien plant has recently spread to five other islands,
and immediately threatens two populations of I. longifolium in Waioli
Valley on Kauai, and one of the two populations of Cyanea grimesiana
ssp. grimesiana on Molokai (HHP 1994e7, 1994e34, 1994h17, 1994i2,
1994i17, 1994m11, 1994z1; Lorence and Flynn 1993; H. Bornhorst and S.
Perlman, in litt. 1992).
Grevillea robusta (silk oak), native to Queensland and New South
Wales, Australia, was extensively planted in Hawaii for timber and is
now naturalized on most of the main Hawaiian Islands (Smith 1985,
Wagner et al. 1990). On Kauai, this alien tree threatens Euphorbia
haeleeleana in Hipalau Valley. In the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, silk
oak negatively affects one population each of Cenchrus agrimonioides,
E. haeleeleana, Isodendrion laurifolium, Schiedea hookeri, and S.
nuttallii (HHP 1994d8, 1994g14, 1994h16, 1994m13, 1994n2).
First introduced to the Hawaiian Islands as cattle fodder, Melinis
minutiflora (molasses grass) was later planted for erosion control
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990). This alien grass quickly spread to dry and
mesic forests previously disturbed by ungulates. Molasses grass
produces a dense mat capable of smothering plants, essentially
preventing seedling growth and native plant reproduction (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, Smith 1985). Because it burns readily and often grows at
the border of forests, molasses grass tends to carry fire into areas
with woody native plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Smith 1985). It is
able to spread prolifically after a fire and effectively out-compete
less fire-adapted native plant species, ultimately creating a stand of
alien grass where forest once stood. In the Waianae Mountains on Oahu,
molasses grass is a serious threat to one population each of Cenchrus
agrimonioides and Euphorbia haeleeleana and two populations of Schiedea
hookeri (HHP 1994d11, 1994g10, 1994m8, 1994m11).
Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass) is naturalized in moist to wet
disturbed areas on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and
Kahoolawe, and produces a dense ground cover. On Kauai, this perennial
grass threatens the Wahiawa Mountains and Waioli Valley populations of
Isodendrion longifolium (HHP 1994i15, 1994i17; Lorence and Flynn 1991,
1993). In the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, Hilo grass threatens one
population of Cenchrus agrimonioides and the largest population of
Schiedea hookeri (HHP 1994d11, 1994m13; Lorence and Flynn 1993).
Psidium guajava (common guava), a shrub or small tree native to the
New World tropics, is naturalized on all of the main islands, except
perhaps Niihau and Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1990). Common guava is a
serious weed that invades disturbed sites, forming dense thickets in
dry as well as mesic and wet forests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990).
On Kauai, common guava poses a threat to a population of Isodendrion
longifolium in Waioli Valley (Lorence and Flynn 1993). In the Waianae
Mountains of Oahu, this alien plant threatens the largest populations
of Schiedea hookeri and S. nuttallii, while on the island of Hawaii,
common guava threatens the only known population of Achyranthes mutica
(HHP 1994m13, 1994n2; HPCC 1992a).
Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani) and A. riparia (Hamakua
pamakani), both native to tropical America, have naturalized in dry
areas to wet forest on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii (Wagner
et al. 1990). These two noxious weeds form dense mats with other alien
plants and prevent regeneration of native plants (Anderson et al.
1992). In the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, two populations of Schiedea
hookeri are threatened by both Maui pamakani and Hamakua pamakani, and
the largest population of Phyllostegia parviflora is threatened by Maui
pamakani (HHP 1994m16, 1994m17, 1994y1). On Hawaii, the only known
population of Achyranthes mutica is threatened by Hamakua pamakani
(HPCC 1992a).
Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry) was introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands in the late 1800s from the continental U.S. (Haselwood
and Motter 1983). The fruits are easily spread by birds to open areas
such as disturbed mesic or wet forests, where the species forms dense,
impenetrable thickets (Smith 1985). The largest population of Cenchrus
agrimonioides on Oahu is threatened by prickly Florida blackberry, as
well as other alien plant taxa (HHP 1994d8). Leucaena leucocephala (koa
haole) is a naturalized shrub which is sometimes the dominant species
in low elevation, dry, disturbed areas on all of the main Hawaiian
islands (Geesink et al. 1990). On Kauai, the only known population of
Panicum niihauense is threatened by several alien plants, including koa
haole (HHP 1994j3, HPCC 1992b). Oahu's only known population of Cyperus
trachysanthos is threatened by alien grasses and possibly by koa haole
(HHP 1994f1; J. Lau, pers. comm. 1994). The largest population of C.
trachysanthos, in the Nualolo Valley on Kauai, is threatened by
established alien species
[[Page 53121]]
Plantago lanceolata and Pteris vittata (Kenneth Wood, pers. comm.
1996). Plantago lanceolata, native to Europe and north-central Asia,
was first collected on Kauai in 1895 and is now naturalized and locally
common in the Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1990). Prosopis pallida
(kiawe) was introduced to Honolulu from a single seed grown on the
Catholic Mission Grounds in 1828. In the early part of this century,
pods were collected and sold to ranchers for cattle ration. The seeds
pass through the digestive system of cattle and spread rapidly
throughout the drier habitats of the Hawaiian islands (Geesink et al.
1990). The only known population of Panicum niihauense is threatened by
kiawe (HHP 1994j3, HPCC 1992b).
Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass), an aggressive, perennial
grass introduced to Hawaii as a pasture grass, withstands trampling and
grazing and is naturalized on four Hawaiian Islands in dry to mesic
forest. It produces thick mats which choke out other plants and prevent
their seedlings from establishing and has been declared a noxious weed
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 360) (O'Connor 1990, Smith
1985). Kikuyu grass is a threat to the only known population of
Achyranthes mutica (HPCC 1992a). The introduced fern Blechnum
occidentale was noted by Dr. Clifford Smith of the University of Hawaii
as a potential pest in 1985 (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Smith 1985). Found
in mesic forests, B. occidentale is a threat to one population of
Schiedea kauaiensis (HHP 1994n18). Conyza bonariensis (hairy horseweed)
is nearly cosmopolitan in distribution, although it is perhaps native
to South America. It was naturalized in Hawaii prior to 1871 and is a
common weed in various urban and non-urban areas throughout Hawaii,
generally in dry habitats. It threatens the only known population of
Achyranthes mutica (HPCC 1992a, Wagner et al. 1990). Opuntia ficus-
indica (panini) was introduced to Hawaii prior to 1809 from Mexico and
has become naturalized in dry, disturbed habitats on Kauai, Oahu, Maui,
Kahoolawe, and Hawaii. Panini threatens the only known population of A.
mutica (HPCC 1992a, Wagner et al. 1990). Axonopus fissifolius (narrow-
leaved carpet grass) is native to subtropical North America and the New
World tropics. Introduced to Hawaii in 1912, narrow-leaved carpet grass
has become common in wet pastures, disturbed wet forest, and bogs on
Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii. Narrow-leaved carpet grass is a
threat to one population of Sanicula purpurea on Oahu (HHP 1994l1,
O'Connor 1990). Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant) is an herb which occurs
on all the main islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe, especially in dry
to mesic areas (Wagner et al. 1990). Air plant threatens one population
of Schiedea kauaiensis (HPCC 1992c2).
Fire poses a potential threat to populations of six of the taxa--
Cenchrus agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, Euphorbia
haeleeleana, Isodendrion longifolium, Schiedea hookeri, and S.
nuttallii (HHP 1994e1, 1994e34, 1994g5, 1994g6, 1994g10, 1994i2,
1994m8, 1994m12, 1994m15 to 1994m17). Because Hawaii's native plants
have evolved with only infrequent, naturally occurring episodes of fire
(lava flows, infrequent lightning strikes), most species are not
adapted to fire and are unable to recover well after recurring fires.
Alien plants are often more fire-adapted than native taxa and quickly
exploit suitable habitat after a fire (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). On
Oahu, unintentionally ignited fires have resulted from military
training exercises in Makua Military Reservation and Schofield Barracks
Military Reservation and pose a possible threat to populations of C.
agrimonioides, E. haeleeleana, and S. nuttallii that grow in dry and
mesic forest on those installations (Environment Impact Study Corp.
1977; HHP 1994a, 1994b, 1994d11, 1994g5, 1994g6, 1994g10, 1994n14;
Yoshioka et al. 1991). Accidentally or maliciously set fires in
residential areas near the Lualualei Naval Magazine and the Makua
Military Reservation could easily spread and pose a possible threat to
one of the four populations of C. agrimonioides, most of the island's
individuals of E. haeleeleana, one population of I. longifolium,
several populations of S. hookeri, and one population of S. nuttallii
(HHP 1994d11, 1994g5, 1994g6, 1994g10, 1994i2, 1994m8, 1994m15 to
1994m17, 1994n14).
Erosion, landslides, and rockslides due to natural weathering
result in the death of individual plants as well as habitat
destruction. This especially affects the continued existence of taxa or
populations found on cliffs and steep slopes that have limited numbers
and/or narrow ranges such as the Oahu populations of Cyanea grimesiana
ssp. grimesiana; the Pahole-Makua Ridge population of Schiedea
nuttallii on Oahu; and the Kalalau Valley population of S. kauaiensis
on Kauai (HHP 1994n2; HPCC 1992c2; L. Mehrhoff, pers. comm. 1995).
The small number of populations and individuals of many of these
taxa increases the potential for extinction from naturally occurring
events. A single human-caused or natural environmental disturbance
could destroy a significant percentage of the individuals or the only
extant population. Two of the plant taxa, Achyranthes mutica and
Panicum niihauense, are each known from a single population. Five
additional taxa have 5 or fewer populations (Cyperus trachysanthos,
Phyllostegia parviflora, Platanthera holochila, Sanicula purpurea, and
Schiedea kauaiensis), and 8 of the taxa are estimated to number no more
than 100 individuals (A. mutica, Cenchrus agrimonioides, Cyanea
grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, P. niihauense, Phyllostegia parviflora,
Platanthera holochila, S. kauaiensis, and S. nuttallii). All of the
taxa either number fewer than 20 populations or total fewer than 1,000
individuals (see Table 2). The small gene pool maintained by these taxa
may depress reproductive vigor through inbreeding and decreased
variability. Variability in genetic makeup of a population provides
resilience to that population by decreasing the chances that an entire
cohort is negatively impacted by a selective episode. Some individuals
may prove more resistant or hardy than others and survive the event,
allowing the population to persist. Small populations with low
variability stand less chance of survival.
The Service has carefully assessed the best scientific and
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and
future threats faced by these taxa in determining to issue this final
rule. Based on this evaluation, the preferred action is to list 13 of
these plant taxa as endangered (Achyranthes mutica, Cenchrus
agrimonioides, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, Cyperus
trachysanthos, Euphorbia haeleeleana, Isodendrion laurifolium, Panicum
niihauense, Phyllostegia parviflora, Platanthera holochila, Sanicula
purpurea, Schiedea hookeri, Schiedea kauaiensis, and Schiedea
nuttallii) and Isodendrion longifolium as threatened. The 13 taxa to be
listed as endangered are threatened by one or more of the following--
habitat degradation and/or predation by pigs, goats, deer, cattle, and
rats; competition for space, light, water, and nutrients from alien
plants; habitat loss from fires; human impacts from military training
practices and recreational activities; and substrate loss. Seven of the
taxa have 5 or fewer populations, and 8 of the taxa are estimated to
number no more than 100 individuals. Small population size and limited
distribution make these taxa particularly vulnerable to extinction
[[Page 53122]]
from reduced reproductive vigor or from naturally occurring events.
Because these 13 taxa are in danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of their ranges, they fit the definition of
endangered as defined in the Act. Therefore, the determination of
endangered status for these 13 taxa is warranted.
Although populations of Isodendrion longifolium are threatened by
habitat degradation and/or destruction by goats and pigs and
competition with six alien plant species, the larger distribution of
populations and total numbers of plants reduce the likelihood that this
species will become extinct in the near future. For these reasons, I.
longifolium is not now in immediate danger of extinction throughout all
or a significant portion of its range. However, I. longifolium is
likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future if the threats
affecting it are not reduced. As a result, I. longifolium meets the
definition of threatened species as defined in the Act.
Critical habitat is not being designated for the 14 taxa included
in this rule for reasons discussed in the ``Critical Habitat'' section
of this rule.
Critical Habitat
Critical habitat is defined in section 3 of the Act as--(i) The
specific areas within the geographical area occupied by a species, at
the time it is listed in accordance with the Act, on which are found
those physical or biological features (I) essential to the conservation
of the species and (II) that may require special management
consideration or protection; and (ii) specific areas outside the
geographical area occupied by a species at the time it is listed, upon
a determination that such areas are essential for the conservation of
the species. ``Conservation'' means the use of all methods and
procedures needed to bring the species to the point at which listing
under the Act is no longer necessary.
Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, and implementing
regulations (50 CFR 424.12) require that, to the maximum extent prudent
and determinable, the Secretary designate critical habitat at the time
a species is determined to be endangered or threatened. The Service
finds that designation of critical habitat is not prudent for the 14
taxa in this rule. Service regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state that
designation of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the
following situations exist--(1) The species is threatened by taking or
other human activity, and identification of critical habitat can be
expected to increase the degree of threat to the species, or (2) such
designation of critical habitat would not be beneficial to the species.
As discussed under Factor B, these taxa are threatened by
overcollection, due to low numbers or population size. The publication
of precise maps and descriptions of critical habitat in the Federal
Register and local newspapers as required in a proposal for critical
habitat would increase the degree of threat to these plants from take
or vandalism and, therefore, could contribute to their decline. The
listing of these taxa publicizes the rarity of the plants and, thus,
can make these plants attractive to researchers, curiosity seekers, or
collectors of rare plants.
The additional protection provided by the designation of critical
habitat to a species would be granted through section 7 of the Act.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or
listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is designated. Section 7(a)(2) requires Federal
agencies to insure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out
are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of such a species
or destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. The 14 species in
this rule are confined to small geographic areas, and each population
is composed of so few individuals that the determinations for jeopardy
to the species and adverse modification of critical habitat would be
similar. Therefore, designation of critical habitat provides no
benefits beyond those that these species would receive by virtue of
their listing as endangered species, and would likely increase the risk
of threat from collecting or other human activities. Critical habitat
protections apply only to Federal actions, and provide little added
protection for populations occurring on State or private land. All
involved parties and the major landowners have been notified of the
location and importance of protecting the habitat of these taxa.
Additional protection of the habitat of these taxa will be addressed
through the recovery process and through the section 7 consultation
process. For this reason Service concludes that designation of critical
habitat for these 14 taxa is not prudent at this time.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
activities. Recognition through listing can encourage and result in
conservation actions by Federal, State, and local agencies, private
organizations, and individuals. The Act provides for possible land
acquisition and cooperation with the State and requires that recovery
actions be carried out for all listed species. The protection required
of Federal agencies and the prohibitions against certain activities
involving listed plants are discussed, in part, below.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or
listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is being designated. Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR
part 402. Section 7(a)(4) requires Federal agencies to confer with the
Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of a species proposed for listing or result in destruction or
adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a species is
listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) requires Federal agencies to
ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out are not
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of a listed species or to
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action
may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible
Federal agency must enter into formal consultation with the Service.
Nine of the endangered taxa occur on land under Federal
jurisdiction, including the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy. Of those, four
taxa are found on federally owned land and six taxa occur on land
leased by the Federal government from the State. Activities carried out
by the U.S. Army include ordnance training practices, ground troop
training activities, and construction, maintenance, and utilization of
helicopter landing and drop-off sites. The Army is coordinating with
TNCH to develop management plans for Schofield Barracks Military
Reservation, Kawailoa Training Area, and Makua Military Reservation to
limit the impact of these activities on endangered species and their
habitats. The Navy is in the process of developing a management plan
for Lualualei Naval Magazine.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and
threatened plants. With respect to the 14 taxa in this rule, all
prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented by 50 CFR 17.61
for
[[Page 53123]]
endangered plants and 17.71 for threatened plants, would apply. These
prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any person subject to the
jurisdiction of the United States to import or export, transport in
interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a commercial activity,
sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce; remove and
reduce the species to possession from areas under Federal jurisdiction.
In addition, for plants listed as endangered, the Act prohibits the
malicious damage or destruction on areas under Federal jurisdiction and
the removal, cutting, digging up, or damaging or destroying of such
plants in knowing violation of any State law or regulation, including
State criminal trespass law. Section 4(d) of the Act allows for the
provision of such protection to threatened species through regulation.
This protection may apply to Isodendrion longifolium in the future if
regulations are promulgated. Seeds from cultivated specimens of
threatened plants are exempt from these prohibitions provided that
their containers are marked ``Of Cultivated Origin.'' Certain
exceptions to the prohibitions apply to agents of the Service and State
conservation agencies.
The Act and 50 CFR 17.62, 17.63, and 17.72 also provide for the
issuance of permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered or threatened plants under certain circumstances.
Such permits are available for scientific purposes and to enhance the
propagation or survival of the species. For threatened plants, permits
are also available for botanical or horticultural exhibition,
educational purposes, or special purposes consistent with the purposes
of the Act. It is anticipated that few permits would be sought or
issued because these 14 taxa are not common in cultivation or in the
wild.
It is the policy of the Service (59 FR 34272) to identify to the
maximum extent practicable at the time a species is listed those
activities that would or would not constitute a violation of section 9
of the Act. Such information is intended to clarify the potential
impacts of the species' listing on proposed and ongoing activities
within the species' range. Nine of the taxa occur on Federal lands
under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army or U.S. Navy. Collection,
damage, or destruction of these taxa on Federal lands is prohibited
although in appropriate cases a Federal endangered species permit may
be issued to allow collection. Such activities on non-Federal lands
would constitute a violation of section 9 if conducted in knowing
violation of Hawaii State law or regulations or in violation of State
criminal trespass law. The Service is not aware of any trade in these
species.
Questions regarding whether specific activities will constitute a
violation of section 9 should be directed to the Field Supervisor of
the Service's Pacific Islands Office (see ADDRESSES section). Requests
for copies of the regulations concerning listed plants and general
inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be addressed to the
Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, Endangered Species
Permits Branch, 911 N.E. 11th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97232-4181
(telephone: 503/231-6241; facsimile: 503/231-6243).
Hawaii State Law
Federal listing will automatically invoke listing under the State's
endangered species act. Hawaii's Endangered Species Act states, ``Any
species of aquatic life, wildlife, or land plant that has been
determined to be an endangered species pursuant to the [Federal]
Endangered Species Act shall be deemed to be an endangered species
under the provisions of this chapter * * *'' (Hawaii Revised Statutes
(HRS), sect. 195D-4(a)). The State law prohibits taking of listed
species on private and State lands and encourages conservation by State
agencies (HRS, sect. 195D-4).
National Environmental Policy Act
The Service has determined that Environmental Assessments or
Environmental Impact Statements, as defined under the authority of the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be prepared in
connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4(a) of the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. A notice outlining the
Service's reasons for this determination was published in the Federal
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
Required Determinations
The Service has examined this regulation under the Paperwork
Reduction Act of 1995 and found it to contain no information collection
requirements. This rulemaking was not subject to review by the Office
of Management and Budget under Executive Order 12866.
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited herein is available upon
request from the Pacific Islands Ecoregion Office (see ADDRESSES
section).
Author
The authors of this rule are Christa Russell and Marie M.
Bruegmann, Pacific Islands Ecoregion Office (see ADDRESSES section).
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, is amended as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500, unless otherwise noted.
2. Section 17.12(h) is amended by adding the following, in
alphabetical order under FLOWERING PLANTS, to the List of Endangered
and Threatened Plants to read as follows:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
----------------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family name Status When Critical Special
Scientific name Common name listed habitat rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FLOWERING PLANTS:
* * * * * * *
Achyranthes mutica............ None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Amaranthaceae............ E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Cenchrus agrimonioides........ Kamanomano................ U.S.A. (HI).............. Poaceae.................. E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Cyanea grimesiana ssp. Haha...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Campanulaceae............ E 592 NA NA
grimesiana.
[[Page 53124]]
* * * * * * *
Cyperus trachysanthos......... Pu'uka'a.................. U.S.A. (HI).............. Cyperaceae............... E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Euphorbia haeleeleana......... 'Akoko.................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Euphorbiaceae............ E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Isodendrion laurifolium....... Aupaka.................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Violaceae................ E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Isodendrion longifolium....... Aupaka.................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Violaceae................ T 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Panicum niihauense............ Lau 'ehu.................. U.S.A. (HI).............. Poaceae.................. E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia parviflora....... None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Lamiaceae................ E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Platanthera holochila......... None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Orchidaceae.............. E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Sanicula purpurea............. None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Apiaceae................. E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Schiedea hookeri.............. None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Caryophyllaceae.......... E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Schiedea kauaiensis........... None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Caryophyllaceae.......... E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Schiedea nuttallii............ None...................... U.S.A. (HI).............. Caryophyllaceae.......... E 592 NA NA
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dated: September 24, 1996.
John G. Rogers,
Acting Director, Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 96-25556 Filed 10-9-96; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P
