[Federal Register Volume 61, Number 198 (Thursday, October 10, 1996)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 53137-53153]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 96-25559]
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
50 CFR Part 17
RIN 1018-AD25
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of
Endangered Status for Thirteen Plants From the Island of Hawaii, State
of Hawaii
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
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SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) determines
endangered status pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (Act), for 13 plants: Clermontia drepanomorpha ('oha wai),
Cyanea platyphylla (haha), Hibiscadelphus giffardianus (hau kuahiwi),
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis (hau kuahiwi), Melicope zahlbruckneri
(alani), Neraudia ovata (no common name (NCN)), Phyllostegia racemosa
(kiponapona), Phyllostegia velutina (NCN), Phyllostegia warshaueri
(NCN), Pleomele hawaiiensis (hala pepe), Pritchardia schattaueri
(loulu), Sicyos alba ('anunu), and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var.
tomentosum (a'e). All 13 taxa are endemic to the island of Hawaii,
Hawaiian Islands. The 13 plant taxa and their habitats have been
threatened by one or more of the following--competition for space,
light, water, and nutrients by naturalized, introduced vegetation;
habitat degradation by wild, feral, or domestic animals (cattle, pigs,
goats, and sheep); agricultural and residential development and
recreational activities; habitat loss and damage to plants from fires;
predation by animals (cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, insects, and rats);
and natural disasters such as volcanic activity. Due to the small
number of existing individuals and their very narrow distributions,
these 13 taxa and their populations are subject to an increased
likelihood of extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor from natural
disasters. This final rule implements the Federal protection provisions
provided by the Act for listed plants. Listing under the Act also
triggers listed status for these 13 taxa under State law.
EFFECTIVE DATE: This rule takes effect November 12, 1996.
ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for inspection,
by appointment, during normal business hours at the Pacific Islands
Ecoregion, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard,
Room 3108, Box 50088, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Brooks Harper, Field Supervisor,
Ecological Services, Pacific Islands Ecoregion (see ADDRESSES section)
(telephone: 808/541-3441; facsimile: 808/541-3470).
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Clermontia drepanomorpha ('oha wai), Cyanea platyphylla (haha),
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus (hau kuahiwi), Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis
(hau kuahiwi), Melicope zahlbruckneri (alani), Neraudia ovata (no
common name (NCN)), Phyllostegia racemosa (kiponapona), Phyllostegia
velutina (NCN), Phyllostegia warshaueri (NCN), Pleomele hawaiiensis
(hala pepe), Pritchardia schattaueri (loulu), Sicyos alba ('anunu), and
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (a'e) all are endemic to the
island of Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands.
The island of Hawaii is the southernmost, easternmost, and youngest
of the eight major Hawaiian Islands. Hawaii, the largest island of the
Hawaiian archipelago comprises 10,458 square kilometers (sq km) (4,038
sq miles (mi)), or two-thirds of the land area of the State of Hawaii,
giving rise to its common name, the ``Big Island.'' The Hawaiian
Islands are volcanic islands formed over a ``hot spot,'' a fixed area
of pressurized molten rock deep within the Earth. As the Pacific Plate,
a
[[Page 53138]]
section of the Earth's surface many miles thick, has moved to the
northwest, the islands of the chain have separated. Currently, this hot
spot is centered under the southeast part of the island of Hawaii,
which is one of the most active volcanic areas on Earth. Five large
shield volcanoes make up the island of Hawaii: Mauna Kea at 4,205
meters (m) (13,796 feet (ft)) and Kohala at 1,670 m (5,480 ft), both
extinct; Hualalai, at 2,521 m (8,271 ft), which is dormant and will
probably erupt again; and Mauna Loa at 4,169 m (13,677 ft) and Kilauea
at 1,248 m (4,093 ft), both of which are currently active and adding
land area to the island. Compared to Kauai, which is the oldest of the
main islands and was formed about 5.6 million years ago, Hawaii is very
young, with fresh lava and land up to 0.5 million years old (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, Culliney 1988, Department of Geography 1983, Macdonald
et al. 1983).
Because of the large size and range of elevation of the island,
Hawaii has a great diversity of climates. Windward (northeastern)
slopes of Mauna Loa have rainfall up to 300 centimeters (cm) (118
inches (in)) per year in some areas. The leeward coast, shielded by the
mountains from rain brought by trade winds, has areas classified as
desert that receive as little as 20 cm (7.9 in) of rain annually. The
summits of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea experience snowfall each year, and
Mauna Kea was glaciated during the last Ice Age (Culliney 1988,
Department of Geography 1983, Macdonald et al. 1983, Wagner et al.
1990).
Plant communities on Hawaii include those in various stages of
primary succession on the slopes of active and dormant volcanoes, ones
in stages of secondary succession following disturbance, and relatively
stable climax communities. On Hawaii, vegetation is found in all
classifications--coastal, dryland, montane, subalpine, and alpine; dry,
mesic, and wet; and herblands, grasslands, shrublands, forests, and
mixed communities. The vegetation and land of the island of Hawaii have
undergone much change through the island's history. Since it is an area
of active volcanism, vegetated areas are periodically replaced with
bare lava. Polynesian immigrants, first settling on Hawaii by 750 A.D.,
made extensive alterations to lowland areas for agriculture and
habitation. European contact with Hawaii brought intentional and
inadvertent introductions of alien plant and animal taxa. In 1960, 65
percent of the total land area of the island of Hawaii was used for
grazing, and much land has also been converted to modern cropland
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
The 13 taxa included in this rule occur between 120 and 1,850 m
(400 and 6,080 ft) in elevation in various portions of the island of
Hawaii. Most of the taxa exist as remnant plants persisting in grazed
areas or in higher elevations which have only recently been heavily
invaded by alien plant and animal taxa. The thirteen taxa grow in a
variety of vegetation communities (pioneer lava, shrublands, and
forests), elevational zones (lowland and montane) and moisture regimes
(dry, mesic, and wet). In lowland habitats, the 13 taxa are found in
pioneer lava, shrubland, dry forest, mesic forest, and wet forest. In
montane habitats, the thirteen taxa are found in dry forest, mesic
forest, and wet forest.
The lands on which these 13 plant taxa are found are owned by
various private parties, the State of Hawaii (including conservation
district lands, forest reserves, natural area reserves, and plant and
wildlife sanctuaries), or are owned or managed by the Federal
government (including a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service refuge, a
National Park, and a U.S. Army training area).
Discussion of the 13 Taxa Included in This Final Rule
Joseph F. Rock (1913) named Clermontia drepanomorpha on the basis
of specimens collected in the Kohala Mountains of the island of Hawaii
in the early 1900's. This taxonomy was retained in the latest treatment
of the genus (Lammers 1990).
Clermontia drepanomorpha, of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae),
is a terrestrial or epiphytic (not rooted in the soil), branching tree
2.5 to 7 m (8.2 to 23 ft) tall. The stalked leaves are 10 to 27 cm (4
to 11 in) long and 1.5 to 4.5 cm (0.6 to 1.8 in) wide. Two to four
flowers, each with a stalk 2 to 3.5 cm (0.8 to 1.4 in) long, are
positioned at the end of a main flower stalk 5 to 12 cm (2 to 5 in)
long. The calyx (fused sepals) and corolla (fused petals) are similar
in size and appearance, and each forms a slightly curved, five-lobed
tube 4 to 5.5 cm (1.6 to 2.2 in) long and 1.5 to 2 cm (0.6 to 0.8 in)
wide which is blackish purple. The berries are orange and 2 to 3 cm
(0.8 to 1.2 in) in diameter. This species is distinguished from others
in this endemic Hawaiian genus by similar sepals and petals, the long
drooping inflorescence, and large blackish purple flowers (Lammers
1990, Rock 1919).
Historically, Clermontia drepanomorpha was known from four
populations in the Kohala Mountains on the island of Hawaii (Hawaii
Heritage Program (HHP) 1993a1 to 1993a4, Rock 1913, Skottsberg 1944,
Stemmermann and Jacobson 1987). Only 13 to 20 individuals in two
populations, bordering private ranch lands, were known to be extant
until recent surveys (Corn 1983; HHP 1993a1, 1993a4; Hawaii Plant
Conservation Center (HPCC) 1993a; Marie M. Bruegmann, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (USFWS), in litt., 1994; Carolyn Corn, Hawaii Division
of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW), in litt., 1994). In 1995, the Service
contracted the National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG) to conduct a
thorough survey of the Kohala area. Approximately five populations
totalling 200 individuals of Clermontia drepanomorpha were found within
a 3.2 km (2 mi) by 8 km (5 mi) State-owned area of the only remaining
habitat for the species (Diane Ragone and Ken Wood, NTBG, in litt.,
1995).
This species typically grows in Metrosideros polymorpha ('ohi'a),
Cheirodendron trigynum ('olapa), and Cibotium glaucum (hapu`u)
dominated Montane Wet Forests, often epiphytically, at elevations
between 1,170 and 1,570 m (3,850 and 5,150 ft) (Corn 1983; HHP 1993a1,
1993a4; HPCC 1993a). Associated taxa include Carex alligata, Melicope
clusiifolia (alani), Styphelia tameiameiae (pukiawe), Astelia menziesii
(pa'iniu), Rubus hawaiiensis ('akala), Cyanea pilosa (haha), and
Coprosma sp. (pilo) (HHP 1993a1, HPCC 1993a).
The major threats to Clermontia drepanomorpha are ditch
improvements, competition from alien plant taxa, like Rubus rosifolius
(thimbleberry), habitat disturbance by feral pigs (Sus scrofa);
girdling of the stems by rats (Rattus spp.); and a risk of extinction
from naturally occurring events (such as hurricanes) and/or reduced
reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing populations
(Bruegmann 1990, Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) 1990, HHP 1993a1,
HPCC 1993a).
Asa Gray (1861) named Delissea platyphylla from a specimen
collected by Horace Mann and W.T. Brigham in the Puna District of the
island of Hawaii. Wilhelm Hillebrand (1888) transferred the species to
Cyanea, creating Cyanea platyphylla. Harold St. John (1987a, St. John
and Takeuchi 1987), believing there to be no generic distinction
between Cyanea and Delissea, transferred the species back to the genus
Delissea, the older of the two generic names. The current treatment of
the family (Lammers 1990), however, maintains the separation of the two
genera. The following taxa have been synonymized with Cyanea
platyphylla: C. bryanii, C. crispohirta, C. fernaldii, C.
[[Page 53139]]
nolimetangere, C. pulchra, and C. rollandioides. However, some field
biologists feel that C. fernaldii, represented by the Laupahoehoe
populations, is a distinct entity that should be resurrected as a
separate species (Frederick Warshauer, National Biological Service,
pers. comm., 1994).
Cyanea platyphylla, of the bellflower family, is an unbranched
palm-like shrub 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft) tall with stems that are covered
with short, sharp, pale spines on the upper portions, especially as
juveniles. This species has different leaves in the juvenile and adult
plants. The juvenile leaves are 10.5 to 25 cm (4.1 to 10 in) long and 4
to 7.5 cm (1.6 to 3.0 in) wide, with prickles on leaves and stalks.
Adult leaves are 34 to 87 cm (13 to 34 in) long and 7 to 22 cm (2.8 to
8.7 in) wide, and are only sparsely prickled. Six to 25 flowers are
clustered on the end of a main stalk 20 to 90 cm (8 to 35 in) long, and
each flower has a stalk 1 to 2.5 cm (0.4 to 1 in) long. The hypanthium
is topped by five small, triangular calyx lobes. Petals, which are
white or yellowish white with magenta stripes, are fused into a curved
tube with five spreading lobes. The corolla is 4.2 to 5.4 cm (1.7 to
2.1 in) long and 5 to 10 millimeters (mm) (0.2 to 0.4 in) wide. Berries
are pale orange, 8 to 10 mm (0.3 to 0.4 in) long, and 6 to 8 mm (0.2 to
0.3 in) wide. The species differs from others in this endemic Hawaiian
genus by its juvenile and adult leaves, precocious flowering, and
smaller flowers (Lammers 1990).
Cyanea platyphylla was historically known from the Kohala
Mountains, Laupahoehoe in the Hamakua District, in the mountains above
Hilo, Pahoa, Glenwood, Honaunau in South Kona, and the unknown location
``Kalanilehua'' (HHP 1991a1 to 1991a4, 1991a7, 1991a8, 1991a11,
1991a12, 1993b; Rock 1917, 1919, 1957; Skottsberg 1926; Wimmer 1943 and
1968). One population of five mature individuals and two juveniles is
known to still exist in Laupahoehoe Natural Area Reserve (NAR) (CPC
1989, 1990; Cuddihy et al. 1982; HHP 1991a6; HPCC 1991a; C. Corn, in
litt., 1994), which is owned and managed by the State of Hawaii.
Approximately four additional populations, totalling 50 to 100
individuals, were recently rediscovered during surveys by NTBG in the
Kohala Mountains (D. Ragone and K. Wood, in litt., 1995). Two
additional populations in Laupahoehoe NAR have not been seen since 1982
and could not be relocated in 1989. The extant Laupahoehoe population
has been spot-fenced by the NAR System to protect it from pig
depredation (Cuddihy et al. 1982; HHP 1991a5, 1991a9, 1991a10; Linda
Pratt, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (HVNP), pers. comms., 1991 and
1994).
Cyanea platyphylla is typically found in Metrosideros polymorpha
('ohi'a)--Acacia koa (koa) Lowland and Montane Wet Forests at
elevations between 120 and 915 m (390 and 3,000 ft) (Lammers 1990).
Associated taxa include Cibotium sp. (hapu`u), Athyrium sandwichianum
(ho'i'o), Antidesma sp. (hame), Clermontia spp. ('oha wai), Hedyotis
sp. (pilo), and Cyrtandra spp. (ha'iwale) (HHP 1991a6, HPCC 1991a).
The major known threats to Cyanea platyphylla are pigs; habitat-
modifying introduced plant taxa, including Psidium cattleianum
(strawberry guava), Psidium guajava (guava), Passiflora ligularis
(sweet granadilla), and thimbleberry; rats, which may eat the fruit;
and volcanic activity (Cuddihy et al. 1982; HHP 1991a6, 1991a9; HPCC
1991a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994).
Another threat is the risk of extinction from naturally occurring
events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the low numbers of
populations and individuals.
Rock (Radlkofer and Rock 1911) named Hibiscadelphus giffardianus to
honor W.M. Giffard, who first saw the taxon in 1911. This species was
used as the type specimen to describe Hibiscadelphus as a new genus,
meaning ``brother of Hibiscus'' (Bryan 1971). This taxonomy was
retained in the latest treatment of the genus (Bates 1990).
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus, of the mallow family (Malvaceae), is a
tree up to 7 m (23 ft) tall with the trunk up to 30 cm (12 in) in
diameter and whitish bark. The leaf blades are heart-shaped and 10 to
30 cm (4 to 12 in) long with a broad tip, a notched base, and stalks
nearly as long as the blades. Flowers are typically solitary in the
axils of the leaves and have stalks 1.5 to 4 cm (0.6 to 1.6 in) long.
Five to seven filament-like bracts are borne below each flower and the
calyx is pouch-like. The overlapping petals form a curved bisymmetrical
flower with the upper petals longer, typical of bird-pollinated
flowers. The flowers are grayish green on the outside and dark magenta
within, and 5 to 7 cm (2 to 3 in) long. The fruit is woody with star-
shaped hairs. This species differs from others in this endemic Hawaiian
genus by its flower color, flower size, and filamentous bracts (Baker
and Allen 1976b, Bates 1990, Degener 1932a, Degener and Degener 1977,
Radlkofer and Rock 1911).
Only one tree of Hibiscadelphus giffardianus has ever been known in
the wild, from Kipuka Puaulu (or Bird Park) in HVNP. This tree died in
1930, but plants exist in cultivation from seeds originally collected
by Giffard before the tree died (Degener 1932a). Cuttings from these
cultivated trees have been planted back into the now fenced original
habitat at Kipuka Puaulu and currently nine mature plants and two
suckers are known to exist (Baker and Allen 1977; Bishop and Herbst
1973; HHP 1991b; HPCC 1991b1, 1991b2; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Individuals planted in Kipuka Ki were later determined to be hybrids
and were removed by Park personnel (Baker and Allen 1977, Mueller-
Dombois and Lamoureux 1967). The cultivated plants in Kipuka Puaulu
have spontaneously produced fertile hybrids with cultivated plants of
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis that were also planted into Kipuka Puaulu
and Kipuka Ki. Both the Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis and the hybrids
have been removed from the Park (Baker and Allen 1976a, 1977; Carr and
Baker 1977). Hibiscadelphus giffardianus has been listed as endangered
in the IUCN Plant Red Data Book (Lucas and Synge 1978).
This taxon grows in mixed Montane Mesic Forest at elevations
between 1,200 and 1,310 m (3,900 and 4,300 ft) (Bates 1990; HHP 1991b;
HPCC 1991b1, 1991b2). Associated taxa include 'ohi'a, koa, Sapindus
saponaria (a'e), ho'i'o, Coprosma sp. (pilo), Pipturus albidus
(mamaki), Psychotria sp. (kopiko), Nestegis sandwicensis (olopua),
Melicope sp. (alani), Dodonaea viscosa ('a'ali'i), Myoporum sandwicense
(naio), and introduced grasses (HHP 1991b; HPCC 1991b1, 1991b2).
The major threats to Hibiscadelphus giffardianus are bark, flower,
and fruit feeding by roof rats (Rattus rattus); leaf damage in the form
of stippling and yellowing by Sophonia rufofascia (two-spotted
leafhopper) and yellowing by the native plant bug Hyalopeplus
pellucidus; competition from the alien grasses Ehrharta stipoides
(meadow ricegrass), Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass), and Paspalum
dilatatum (Dallis grass); habitat change from volcanic activity; and a
risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced
reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing cultivated
individuals, all from a single parent (Baker and Allen 1978; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994). Cattle (Bos
taurus) were known in the area before it became a National Park and
probably had a large influence on the habitat (Anonymous 1920, Rock
1913, St. John 1981).
Rock (Radlkofer and Rock 1911) named Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis
after Hualalai, the volcano on which the
[[Page 53140]]
plant was found in 1909 (Rock 1913). This taxonomy was retained in the
latest treatment of the genus (Bates 1990).
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, of the mallow family, is a tree 5 to
7 m (16 to 23 ft) tall with the trunk up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter
and whitish bark. The leaf blades are heart-shaped and 10 to 15 cm (4
to 6 in) long with a broad tip, a notched base, stellate hairs, and
stalks 4 to 10 cm (1.5 to 4 in) long. One or two flowers are borne in
the axils of the leaves and have stalks 1.5 to 14 cm (0.6 to 5.5 in)
long. Five toothlike bracts are borne below each flower and the calyx
is tubular or pouch-like. The overlapping petals form a curved
bisymmetrical flower with longer upper petals, typical of bird-
pollinated flowers. The flowers are greenish yellow on the outside and
yellowish green, fading to purplish within, and 2 to 5.5 cm (0.8 to 2.2
in) long. The fruit is woody and the seeds have a dense covering of
hairs. The species differs from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus
by its flower color, smaller flower size, and toothlike bracts (Baker
and Allen 1976b, Bates 1990, Degener 1932b, Radlkofer and Rock 1911).
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis was historically known from three
populations, located in the Puu Waawaa region of Hualalai, on the
island of Hawaii (HHP 1993c1 to 1993c3; HPCC 1990a, 1991c, 1992a). The
last known wild tree was in Puu Waawaa I Plant Sanctuary, owned and
managed by the Department of Land and Natural Resources, State of
Hawaii. This tree died in 1992, but 12 cultivated trees have been
planted within the fenced sanctuary (HHP 1993c2; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; Joel Lau, HHP, in litt., 1991). In addition, approximately
ten cultivated plants can be found near the State's Kokia Sanctuary in
Kaupulehu (HPCC 1990a; Steven Bergfeld, pers. comm., 1994). Cultivated
individuals were planted in Kipuka Puaulu in HVNP, but were removed to
prevent further hybridization with the Hibiscadelphus giffardianus
plants that are native to the kipuka (Baker and Allen 1977, 1978). The
area where the plants are presently found is surrounded by State land
that is leased for cattle ranching.
This species grows in mixed Dry to Mesic Forest remnants on lava
fields, at elevations between 915 and 1,020 m (3,000 and 3,350 ft)
(Bates 1990; HHP 1993c3; HPCC 1991c, 1992a). Associated taxa include
'ohi'a, Diospyros sandwicensis (lama), Sophora chrysophylla (mamane),
naio, Pouteria sandwicensis ('ala'a), Charpentiera sp. (papala),
Nothocestrum sp. ('aiea), Claoxylon sandwicense (po'ola), and
Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass) (HHP 1993c3; HPCC 1991c, 1992a;
J. Lau, in litt., 1991).
The major threats to Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis are fire; cattle,
pigs, and sheep (Ovis aries) that may get through the fence; flower and
seed feeding by roof rats; competition from alien plants such as kikuyu
grass and Lantana camara (lantana); ranching activities; habitat change
from volcanic activity; and a risk of extinction from naturally
occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small
number of known cultivated individuals from a single parent (Anonymous
1920; Baker and Allen 1978; HHP 1993c3; HPCC 1991c, 1992a; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Based on a specimen he collected in 1911 in Kipuka Puaulu, on the
island of Hawaii, Rock (1913) described Pelea zahlbruckneri, in honor
of Dr. A. Zahlbruckner, director of the Botanical Museum in Vienna.
Pelea has since been submerged into Melicope, creating the combination
Melicope zahlbruckneri (Stone et al. 1990).
Melicope zahlbruckneri, of the citrus family (Rutaceae), is a
medium-sized tree 10 to 12 m (33 to 40 ft) tall. New growth is covered
with yellowish brown, fine, short, curly hairs. The opposite, stalked,
elliptically oblong leaves are 6 to 24 cm (2.4 to 9.5 in) long and 4 to
12.5 cm (1.6 to 4.9 in) wide, with well defined lateral veins. Clusters
of two to five flowers have main flowering stalks 15 to 20 cm (5.9 to
7.9 in) long and each flower has a stalk about 0.4 cm (0.2 in) long.
Female flowers consist of four sepals about 1.5 mm (0.05 in) long, four
petals about 3 mm (0.1 in) long, an eight-lobed nectary disk, eight
reduced and nonfunctional stamens, and a hairless four-celled ovary.
Male flowers consist of four sepals 3.5 mm (0.01 in) long, four petals
about 6 mm (0.2 in) long, and eight functional stamens in two whorls
equal to or longer than the petals. The fruit is squarish, 12 to 14 mm
(0.4 to 0.5 in) long, and up to 30 mm (1.2 in) wide. Melicope
zahlbruckneri is distinguished from other species of the genus by its
branching habit, large leaves, and very large, squarish capsules (Rock
1913, Stone 1969, Stone et al. 1990).
Historically, Melicope zahlbruckneri was known only from the island
of Hawaii near Glenwood, in Kipuka Puaulu, and at Moaula in Kau
(Degener 1930, HHP 1991c1 to 1991c3, HPCC 1991d, Rock 1913, Stone 1969,
Stone et al. 1990). Today, the species is known to be extant only in
Kipuka Puaulu, on land owned by HVNP, with 30 to 35 individuals
remaining (HHP 1991c2; HPCC 1991d; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994). The
species is reproducing at this fenced site, and juvenile plants are
present (L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994). This species is found in koa-
and 'ohi'a-dominated Montane Mesic Forest at elevations between 1,195
and 1,300 m (3,920 and 4,265 ft) (HHP 1991c2, HPCC 1991d, Stone et al.
1990). Associated taxa include pilo, a'e, mamaki, kopiko, olopua, naio,
Pisonia sp. (papala), several species of Melicope (alani), ho'i'o,
'a'ali'i, and the introduced grasses, meadow ricegrass, Hilo grass, and
Dallis grass (HHP 1991c2; HPCC 1991d; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; L.
Pratt, pers. comm., 1994).
The major threats to Melicope zahlbruckneri are the two-spotted
leafhopper; competition from introduced grasses (meadow ricegrass, Hilo
grass, and Dallis grass); habitat change due to volcanic activity;
potential fruit damage by rats; and a risk of extinction from naturally
occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small
number of individuals in the one remaining population (HPCC 1991d; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994).
Neraudia pyrifolia was named by Charles Gaudichaud-Beaupre from
material he collected in the early 1800's on the island of Hawaii
(Cowan 1949). This name was determined to be invalidly published,
lacking an adequate description. Gaudichaud-Beaupre named Neraudia
ovata from an additional specimen, and this has been maintained in the
current taxonomic treatment for the species. H.A. Weddell considered
this taxon a variety of Neraudia melastomifolia, but this has not been
upheld by other taxonomists. S.L. Endlicher and E.G. Steudel placed
this species in the genus Boehmeria, but the current taxonomic
treatment maintains Neraudia as an endemic Hawaiian genus. Harold St.
John named a new species, Neraudia cookii, from a collection by David
Nelson on Cook's 1779 voyage to Hawaii (St. John 1976). That specimen
is considered to be Neraudia ovata in the current taxonomic treatment
(Cowan 1949, Wagner et al. 1990).
Neraudia ovata, of the nettle family (Urticaceae), is a sprawling
or rarely erect shrub to a small tree, with stems 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft)
long, and branches bearing short, somewhat erect hairs. The alternate,
thin, stalked leaves are smooth-margined, grayish on the undersurface,
5 to 14 cm (2 to 5.5 in) long and 2 to 6.5 cm (0.8 to 2.6 in) wide, and
have spreading, curved, nearly translucent hairs. Male and female
flowers are found on separate plants. Male flowers have extremely short
[[Page 53141]]
stalks and a densely hairy calyx. Female flowers have no stalks and a
densely hairy, boat-shaped calyx. The fruit is an achene (a dry one-
seeded fruit that does not open at maturity). This species is
distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by the
density, length, and posture of the hairs on the lower leaf surface;
smooth leaf margin; and the boat-shaped calyx of the female flower
(Cowan 1949, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Neraudia ovata was found on the island of Hawaii on
the Kona coast from North Kona to Kau (Cowan 1949; HHP 1991d1 to
1991d3, 1993d1 to 1993d7; Hillebrand 1888; St. John 1976 and 1981;
Skottsberg 1944). One extant population of five individuals is known
from privately owned land in Kaloko, North Kona (Nishida 1993;
Warshauer and Gerrish 1993; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; Winona Char,
Char and Associates, in litt., 1995). An additional population of six
individuals was rediscovered in late 1995 at the boundary of the U.S.
Army's Pohakuloa Training Area (HHP 1993d4, 1993d5; M. Bruegmann, in
litt. 1996).
Neraudia ovata grows in open 'ohi'a- and mamane-dominated Lowland
and Montane Dry Forests at elevations of 115 m (380 ft) at Kaloko and
1,325 and 1,520 m (4,350 to 5,000 ft) at Pohakuloa Training Area (HHP
1993d4, 1993d5; Nishida 1993; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994, 1996; R.
Shaw, in litt. 1996). Associated taxa include Reynoldsia sandwicensis
('ohe), naio, Cocculus triloba (huehue), Myrsine sp. (kolea), and
Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry), as well as the federally
endangered Nothocestrum breviflorum (ai'ae) and Pleomele hawaiiensis
(hala pepe), and other species of concern, including Capparis
sandwichiana (pua pilo), Fimbristylis hawaiiensis, and Bidens micrantha
ssp. ctenophylla (ko'oko'olau) (Nishida 1993; Warshauer and Gerrish
1993; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994, 1996).
The major threats to Neraudia ovata are heavy browsing and habitat
modification by feral sheep and goats (Capra hircus); competition from
alien plants such as Christmas berry, Leucaena leucocephala (koa
haole), and Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass); habitat change due to
volcanic activity; residential development; insects, like spiralling
whitefly (Aleurodicus dispersus); and a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals in the two remaining populations
(Nishida 1993; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994, 1996). From a specimen
collected by James Macrae on Mauna Kea, on the island of Hawaii,
Bentham named Phyllostegia racemosa in 1830 (Sherff 1935). The current
treatment of the genus includes E.E. Sherff's (1935) Phyllostegia
racemosa var. bryanii with Phyllostegia mannii, rather than with this
species (Wagner et al. 1990).
Phyllostegia racemosa, of the mint family (Lamiaceae), is a
climbing vine with many-branched, square stems and spicy-smelling
leaves. Leaves are opposite, moderately covered with short, soft hairs,
dotted with small glands, 3.4 to 6 cm (1.3 to 2.4 in) long, and 1.4 to
4.3 cm (0.6 to 1.7 in) wide, with shallow, rounded teeth. The leaf
stalks are densely covered with short hairs. Flower clusters, densely
covered with short soft hairs, are comprised of 6 to 12 flowers with
individual flower stalks 1 to 3 mm (0.04 to 0.12 in) long and leaflike
bracts. The green bell-shaped calyx is about 3.5 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2
in) long, covered with glands, and has triangular lobes. The white
corolla is two-lipped, with a tube about 7 to 10 mm (0.3 to 0.4 in)
long, upper lip 2 to 2.5 mm (0.08 to 0.1) long, and lower lip 4 to 5 mm
(0.16 to 0.2 in) long. Fruits are divided into four nutlets about 1.5
to 2 mm (0.06 to 0.08 in) long. This species is distinguished from
others in this genus by its leaf shape, lack of a main stalk to the
flower clusters, and calyx teeth that are rounded and shallow
(Hillebrand 1888, Sherff 1935, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Phyllostegia racemosa was found only on the island of
Hawaii in the Hakalau and Saddle Road areas of Mauna Kea and the
Kulani/Keauhou and Kipuka Ahiu areas of Mauna Loa (Clarke et al. 1983;
HHP 1990a1, 1991a2, 1991e1 to 1991e4; Pratt and Cuddihy 1990; Sherff
1935, 1951; Jack Jeffrey, USFWS, in litt., 1993; Jaan Lepson,
University of Hawaii (UH), in litt., 1990). Today, four populations of
the species are known to occur on private and State lands in the
Kulani/Keauhou area, on Federal land managed as the Hakalau National
Wildlife Refuge, and in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Together, these
four populations comprise 25 to 45 individuals (HHP 1991e1, 1991e4;
HPCC 1991d; J. Jeffrey, in litt., 1993; J. Lepson, in litt., 1993; J.
Jeffrey, pers. comm., 1994; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1995).
Phyllostegia racemosa is typically found epiphytically in disturbed
koa-, 'ohi'a-, and hapu`u-dominated Montane Mesic or Wet Forests at
elevations between 1,400 and 1,850 m (4,650 to 6,070 ft). Associated
taxa include Vaccinium calycinum (ohelo), Rubus hawaiiensis (akala),
and Dryopteris wallichiana (Clarke et al. 1983; HHP 1991e1, 1991e4;
HPCC 1991e; Wagner et al. 1990; J. Jeffrey, in litt., 1993).
The major threats to Phyllostegia racemosa are habitat disturbance
by feral pigs and cattle; logging; competition from alien plant taxa,
such as banana poka, kikuyu grass, Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet
vernalgrass), and Paspalum urvillei (Vasey grass); habitat change due
to volcanic activity; and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring
events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of
existing populations and individuals (Clarke et al. 1983; HHP 1991e1,
1991e4; HPCC 1991e; Pratt and Cuddihy 1990).
Based on a specimen collected on Mauna Kea by the U.S. Exploring
Expedition in 1840, Sherff described a new variety of Phyllostegia
macrophylla, variety velutina, named for its velvety leaves and stems
(Sherff 1935). St. John (1987b) determined that this entity was
sufficiently different to constitute a separate species, Phyllostegia
velutina, which has been maintained in the current treatment of the
genus (Wagner et al. 1990).
Phyllostegia velutina, of the mint family, is a climbing vine with
dense, backward-pointing hairs on the leaves and square stems. The
hairs are silky on the opposite, narrow, toothed leaves, which are 9.2
to 17.5 cm (3.6 to 6.9 in) long and 2.5 to 5 cm (1 to 2 in) wide. Six
to 10 flowers are borne in an unbranched inflorescence with conspicuous
leaflike bracts. The green bell-shaped calyx is 6 to 7 mm (0.2 to 0.3
in) long, densely covered with upward-pointing hairs, and has
triangular lobes. The white corolla is densely covered with upward-
pointing hairs and is two-lipped, with a slightly curved tube about 12
mm (0.4 in) long, upper lip 5 to 7 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) long, and lower
lip 4 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) long. Fruits are divided into four
nutlets about 4 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) long. This species is
distinguished from others in this genus by its silky hairs, lack of a
main stalk to the flower clusters, and calyx teeth that are narrow and
sharply pointed (Sherff 1935, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Phyllostegia velutina occurred on the island of
Hawaii on the southern slopes of Hualalai and the eastern, western, and
southern slopes of Mauna Loa (Clarke et al. 1983, HHP 1991f1 to 1991f4,
Sherff 1935, Wagner et al. 1990). Three extant populations are known to
occur at Puu Waawaa on a State-owned wildlife sanctuary, in Honuaula
Forest Reserve on State-owned land, and at Kulani/Keauhou on a State-
owned correctional facility and
[[Page 53142]]
adjacent privately owned land (Clarke et al. 1983; HHP 1991f1; HPCC
1990b, 1991f, 1992b; S. Bergfeld, in litt., 1995; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; Jon Giffin, DOFAW, pers. comm., 1994). Approximately 30 to
55 plants are known from these three populations (HHP 1991f1; HPCC
1990b, 1991f, 1992b; S. Bergfeld, in litt., 1995; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994). A fourth population has been reported from the general
area of Waiea Tract in South Kona, but the exact location and current
status of this population are unknown (HHP 1991f2).
Phyllostegia velutina typically grows in 'ohi'a- and koa-dominated
Montane Mesic and Wet Forests at elevations between 1,490 and 1,800 m
(4,900 and 6,000 ft). Associated taxa include hapu`us, Cheirodendron
trigynum ('olapa), 'ohelo, pilo, Dryopteris wallichiana, akala, mamaki,
ho'i'o, Myrsine sp. (kolea), and Ilex anomala (kawa'u) (Clarke et al.
1983; HHP 1991f1; HPCC 1990b, 1991f, 1992b; Wagner et al. 1990).
Threats to Phyllostegia velutina are habitat damage by cattle,
feral pigs and sheep; prison facility expansion, road clearing, and
logging; competition from alien plants, such as kikuyu grass, Rubus
ellipticus (yellow Himalayan raspberry), Vasey grass, and fountain
grass; fire; habitat change due to volcanic activity; and a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive
vigor due to the small number of existing populations and individuals
(HHP 1991f1; HPCC 1990b, 1991f, 1992b; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Phyllostegia ambigua var. longipes was first collected by J.M.
Lydgate and named by Hillebrand (1888). The type locality was suggested
to be ``probably East Maui'' (Hillebrand 1888), but this is assumed to
be in error since Rock's field notes indicate that he and Lydgate were
in the Kohala Mountains at the time of that collection (Cuddihy 1982,
Wagner et al. 1990). E.E. Sherff did not consider Phyllostegia ambigua
different from Phyllostegia brevidens, and created the combination
Phyllostegia brevidens var. longipes (Sherff 1935). Based on newly
collected material, St. John considered this variety sufficiently
different to warrant designation as the species Phyllostegia warshaueri
(St. John 1987b). The current treatment has maintained this species
(Wagner et al. 1990).
Phyllostegia warshaueri, of the mint family, is either a sprawling
or climbing vine with end branches turning up, covered with upward-
pointing fine, short hairs on the square stems which are about 1 to 3 m
(3.3 to 10 ft) long. The opposite, nearly hairless, toothed leaves are
9.5 to 20 cm (3.7 to 7.9 in) long and 2 to 6.6 cm (0.8 to 2.6 in) wide.
Six to 14 flowers are borne in an unbranched inflorescence up to 20 cm
(7.9 in) long with a main stalk 25 to 40 mm (1.0 to 1.6 in) long and
conspicuous leaflike bracts. The green, hairless, cone-shaped calyx is
6 to 8 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) long and has triangular lobes. The corolla is
white with a dark rose upper lip, sparsely hairy, and has a tube about
18 to 20 mm (0.7 to 0.8 in) long, upper lip about 6 mm (0.2 in) long,
and lower lip 12 to 15 mm (0.5 to 0.6) long. Fruits are divided into
four nutlets about 6 to 7 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) long. This species is
distinguished from others in this genus by its long main stalk to the
flower clusters, toothed leaves, and the distribution of hairs (Sherff
1935, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Phyllostegia warshaueri was found only on the island
of Hawaii, in the Hamakua region on the northern slopes of Mauna Kea
and in the Kohala Mountains (Clarke et al. 1981; Cuddihy et al. 1982;
HHP 1991g1 to 1991g3, 1993e). The only known individuals occur in two
populations in the Kohala Mountains near the Hamakua Ditch Trail in the
Kohala Mountains, on privately owned land (HPCC 1992c; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; D. Ragone and K. Wood, in litt., 1995). The total number
of individuals is 5 to 10 (D. Ragone and K. Wood, in litt., 1995). This
species grows in 'ohi'a and hapu'u Montane Wet Forest in which koa or
olapa may codominate, at elevations between 730 and 1,150 m (2,400 and
3,770 ft) (Clarke et al. 1981; Cuddihy et al. 1982; HHP 1991g1, 1991g2;
HPCC 1992c; Wagner et al. 1990). Associated taxa include Sadleria sp.
('amau), hapu`us, Broussaisia arguta (kanawao), mamaki, Dubautia
plantaginea (na'ena'e), 'oha wai, ho'i'o, Machaerina angustifolia
('uki'uki), Cyanea pilosa (haha), and other species of Cyanea (HPCC
1992c).
The major threats to Phyllostegia warshaueri are habitat
destruction by pigs; competition from alien plant taxa, like
thimbleberry, strawberry guava, Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass), Juncus
planifolius, and Tibouchina herbacea (glorybush); ditch improvements
and road clearing; and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring
events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of
existing individuals in the one remaining population (HPCC 1992c; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Otto and Isabelle Degener named Pleomele hawaiiensis from a
specimen collected in 1977, which was first validly published in 1980
(Degener and Degener 1980). Some experts considered this genus to be
part of the larger genus Dracaena, but this combination is no longer
used. St. John (1985) distinguished two separate species, Pleomele
haupukehuensis and P. konaensis, which the current treatment includes
in Pleomele hawaiiensis (Wagner et al. 1990).
Pleomele hawaiiensis, of the agave family (Agavaceae), is a
branching tree, 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) tall, with leaves spirally
clustered at the tips of branches and leaving large brown leaf scars as
they fall off. The leaves measure 23 to 38 cm (9 to 15 in) long and 1.4
to 2.7 cm (0.6 to 1 in) wide. Flowers are numerous in terminal clusters
with a main stalk 6 to 13 cm (2 to 5 in) long and individual flower
stalks 5 to 12 mm (0.2 to 0.5 in) long. The three sepals and three
petals of the flower are similar and pale yellow, 33 to 43 mm (1.3 to
1.7 in) long, with a constricted base. The fruit is a red berry about
10 to 13 mm (0.4 to 0.5 in) long. This species differs from other
Hawaiian species in this genus by its pale yellow flowers, the size of
the flowers, the length of the constricted base of the flower, and the
width of the leaves (Degener and Degener 1930, St. John 1985, Wagner et
al. 1990).
Historically, Pleomele hawaiiensis was found only on the island of
Hawaii ranging from Hualalai to Kau (Degener and Degener 1980; HHP
1991h1 to 1991h8, 1993f1 to 1993f4; HPCC 1991g, 1992d, 1993b; St. John
1985; Tunison et al. 1991; Wagner et al. 1990). Six to eight
populations are currently known--one to three in the Puu Waawaa region
of Hualalai on State-leased and private land; two in the Kaloko/Kaloao
area on private land; two in the Kapua/Kahuku area on private land; and
one on Holei Pali within HVNP. These populations total 300 to 400
individuals (Char 1987; HHP 1991h1, 1991h2, 1991h4, 1991h5, 1993f3,
1993f4; HPCC 1991g, 1992d, 1993b; Nagata 1984; Nishida 1993; Tunison et
al. 1991; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994, 1996; W. Char, in litt., 1995;
Samuel Gon III, HHP, in litt., 1992; J. Lau, in litts., 1990 and 1993;
L. Pratt, in litt., 1994; W. Char, pers. comm., 1994; Clyde Imada,
Bishop Museum, pers. comm., 1994). The only populations that are
successfully reproducing are at Kaloko and Holei Pali (M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994). An additional population may exist along the western
boundary of HVNP, but it has not been revisited recently (L. Pratt, in
litt., 1995).
Pleomele hawaiiensis typically grows on open aa lava in diverse
Lowland Dry Forests at elevations between 300 and 800 m (1,000 and
2,700 ft) (HHP 1991h1, 1991h2, 1991h4, 1991h5, 1993f3, 1993f4; HPCC
1991g, 1992d, 1993b; Wagner et al. 1990; S. Gon, in
[[Page 53143]]
litt., 1992; J. Lau, in litts., 1990 and 1993). Associated taxa include
'ohi'a, lama, mamane, Sydrax odoratum (alahe'e), huehue, naio, olopua,
Nototrichium sandwicense (kulu'i), Sida fallax ('ilima), Erythrina
sandwicensis (wiliwili), Santalum sp. ('iliahi), Osteomeles
anthyllidifolia ('ulei), and fountain grass as a dominant ground cover,
as well as four federally endangered species (Caesalpinia kavaiensis
(uhiuhi), Colubrina oppositifolia (kauila), Nothocestrum breviflorum
(ai'ae)), and Neraudia ovata, and other species of concern, including
Capparis sandwichiana (pua pilo) and Bidens micrantha ssp. ctenophylla
(ko'oko'olau) (Char 1987; HHP 1991h2, 1991h4 to 1991h6; HPCC 1991g,
1992d, 1993b; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; S. Gon, in litt., 1992; J.
Lau, in litts., 1990 and 1993).
The major threats to Pleomele hawaiiensis are habitat conversion
associated with residential and recreational development; habitat
destruction by cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats; fire (which destroyed a
large portion of one Puu Waawaa population in 1986); competition from
alien plant taxa, like fountain grass, koa haole, Christmas berry, and
lantana; habitat change due to volcanic activity; and the lack of
reproduction in all but two populations (Char 1987; HHP 1991h2, 1991h4,
1991h5; HPCC 1991g, 1992d, 1993b; Nagata 1984; M. Bruegmann, in litt.,
1994; J. Lau, in litt., 1990; C. Imada, pers. comm., 1994).
Donald Hodel (1985) described Pritchardia schattaueri based on a
specimen collected from plants discovered by George Schattauer in 1957
(M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Pritchardia schattaueri, of the palm family (Arecaceae), is a large
palm 30 to 40 m (100 to 130 ft) tall with a gray, longitudinally
grooved trunk 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. Leaves form a spherical crown
and are sometimes persistent after death. Leaves are fan-shaped, glossy
green with small brown scales on the lower surface, up to 3.6 m (11.8
ft) long and 1.7 m (5.6 ft) wide. Flowers are on two- to four-branched
inflorescences with a main stalk 1.2 to 1.75 m (3.9 to 5.7 ft) long and
individual branches 1 to 1.4 m (3.2 to 4.6 ft) long. The five bracts
are lance-shaped, the lowest one 60 cm (2 ft) long, and the uppermost
one 20 to 30 cm (9 to 12 in) long. The calyx is green, shading to
yellow-green at the tip, three-toothed, 6 mm (0.2 in) long, and 4 mm
(0.1 in) wide. Fruits are round or pear-shaped, black with brown spots
when mature, 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2 in) long, and 3 to 4 cm (1.2 to 1.6
in) wide. This species differs from its closest relative, Pritchardia
beccariana, by its slender inflorescence branches, more deeply divided
leaves, and pendulous rather than stiff tips of the leaf blade segments
(Hodel 1985, Read and Hodel 1990).
Pritchardia schattaueri is known from 12 individuals in three
locations in South Kona on the island of Hawaii, on privately owned
land. Ten individuals are known from a forest partially cleared for
pasture in Hoomau. Two other individuals are found singly at the edge
of a macadamia nut farm and in an area owned by a development company.
Ten seedlings have been planted near the macadamia farm individual (HHP
1991i1 to 1991i3; HPCC 1992e1, 1992e2; Hodel 1980, 1985; M. Bruegmann,
in litt., 1994; Donald Hodel, University of California, Los Angeles, in
litt., 1995).
Pritchardia schattaueri grows in 'ohi'a-dominated Lowland Mesic
Forest, at elevations between 600 and 800 m (1,970 to 2,600 ft) (HHP
1991i1 to 1991i3; HPCC 1992e1, 1992e2; Hodel 1985; Read and Hodel
1990). Associated taxa include 'ohi'a, olopua, papala, hapu'us, kolea,
and Pittosporum sp. (ho'awa) (HHP 1991i2; HPCC 1992e1; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994).
The major threats to Pritchardia schattaueri are grazing and
trampling by cattle and feral pigs; competition from alien plant taxa,
like strawberry guava, common guava, kikuyu grass, Christmas berry, and
thimbleberry; seed predation by rats; residential and commercial
development; habitat change due to volcanic activity; and a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive
vigor due to the small number of existing populations and individuals
and the lack of successful regeneration (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3; HPCC
1992e1, 1992e2; Hodel 1980, 1985; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994). Lethal
yellowing is a disease particular to palms that represents a potential
threat if the disease ever reaches Hawaii.
First collected by the U.S. Exploring Expedition of 1840 and 1841,
and considered a new but unnamed variety of Sicyos cucumerinus by Gray
in 1854, Sarx alba was named by St. John in 1978, creating Sarx as a
new genus (St. John 1978, Telford 1990). Ian Telford returned this
entity to the genus Sicyos, maintaining the species as Sicyos alba
(Telford 1989).
Sicyos alba, of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae), is an annual vine
up to 20 m (65 ft) long, minutely hairy, and black-spotted. Leaves are
pale, broadly heart-shaped, shallowly to deeply three- to five-lobed, 7
to 11 cm (2.8 to 4.3 in) long, and 9 to 12 cm (3.5 to 4.7 in) wide.
Male and female flowers are borne in separate flower clusters on the
same plant. Male flower clusters have main stalks 2.5 to 3.7 cm (1 to
1.5 in) long and individual flower stalks 2 to 4 mm (0.08 to 0.1 in)
long. The male flowers are white, five-lobed, dotted with glands, and 2
to 2.5 mm (0.08 to 0.09 in) long. The female flower clusters have two
to eight flowers, a main stalk 1 to 3.5 cm (0.4 to 1.4 in) long, and no
stalks on the individual flowers. The flowers are white and four-lobed,
with the lobes 1.7 to 2 mm (0.07 to 0.08 in) long. The fruit is white,
fleshy, oblong, 29 to 32 mm (1.1 to 1.3 in) long, and 10 to 11 mm
(about 0.4 in) wide. This species can be distinguished from its nearest
relative, Sicyos cucumerinus, by its white fruit without bristles and
ten or fewer female flowers per cluster (St. John 1978, Telford 1990).
Historically, Sicyos alba was found only on the island of Hawaii,
from Mauna Kea, Kilauea, and the Puu Makaala area (HHP 1991j1 to
1991j4, St. John 1978). Today, the two known populations are restricted
to Puu Makaala NAR and Olaa Forest Reserve, both on State-owned land in
the Puna District (HHP 1991j1; HPCC 1991h, 1993c). The number of
individuals fluctuates from year to year because this species is an
annual. At last report, only one individual was growing at Puu Makaala
NAR, but about 20 individuals are known from the Olaa population (HPCC
1993c; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; Steve Perlman, NTBG, pers. comm.,
1994). A Sicyos collected in HVNP's Olaa Tract may also be this
species, but the identification is unconfirmed at this time (L. Pratt,
in litt., 1995).
Sicyos alba typically grows in 'ohi'a- and hapu`u-dominated Montane
Wet Forests, at elevations between 975 and 1,130 m (3,200 to 3,720 ft)
(HHP 1991j1; HPCC 1991h, 1993c; Telford 1990). Associated taxa include
hapu'u, kawa'u, kanawao, ha'iwale, Stenogyne sp., kopiko, Perrottetia
sandwicensis (olomea), olapa, ho'i'o, and Cyanea tritomantha (haha)
(HHP 1991j1; HPCC 1991h, 1993c; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
The major threats to Sicyos alba are habitat damage by feral pigs;
trail clearing; competition from alien plant taxa, like banana poka,
palmgrass, strawberry guava, and yellow Himalayan raspberry; habitat
change due to volcanic activity; and a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals (HHP 1991j1; HPCC 1991h, 1993c).
Horace Mann described Zanthoxylum dipetalum in 1867, and Rock named
a new variety Zanthoxylum dipetalum
[[Page 53144]]
var. tomentosum, based on a specimen he collected at Puu Waawaa on
Hualalai, on the island of Hawaii, in 1909 (Rock 1913). The specific
epithet refers to the dense covering of soft hairs on the undersurface
of the leaflets. Some authors have placed Hawaiian taxa in the genus
Fagara, resulting in F. dipetala var. tomentosa (Stone et al. 1990).
However, Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum is maintained in the
current treatment of the Hawaiian species (Stone et al. 1990).
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum, of the citrus family, is a
thornless tree 4 to 15 m (13 to 49 ft) tall with a trunk up to 30 cm
(12 in) in diameter. It has alternate leaves comprised of three to
seven leathery, elliptical, gland-dotted, smooth-edged leaflets usually
6 to 36 cm (2.4 to 12 in) long and 2.5 to 13.5 cm (1 to 5.3 in) wide.
The undersurface of the leaflets is densely covered with fine, short
hairs, and the lowest pair of leaflets is often strongly reduced. The
stalks of the side leaflets have one joint each, and the stalk of the
terminal leaflet has two joints. Flowers are usually either male or
female, and usually only one sex is found on a single tree. Clusters of
5 to 15 flowers, 9 to 18 mm (0.4 to 0.7 in) long, have a main flower
stalk 10 to 40 mm (0.4 to 1.6 in) long and individual flower stalks 3
to 8 mm (0.1 to 0.3 in) long. Each flower has four broadly triangular
sepals about 1 to 1.5 mm (0.04 to 0.06 in) long and two or four
yellowish white petals, sometimes tinged with red, 6 to 10 mm (0.2 to
0.4 in) long. The fruit is an oval follicle (dry fruit that opens along
one side) 15 to 33 mm (0.6 to 1.3 in) long, containing one black seed
about 10 to 26 mm (0.4 to 1 in) long. This variety is distinguished
from Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. dipetalum by the hairs on the
undersurface of the leaflets. It is distinguished from other Hawaiian
species of the genus by its reduced lower leaflets, the presence of
only one joint on some of the leaflet stalks, and the large seeds (Rock
1913, Stone et al. 1990).
Only one population of Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum has
ever been known, located at Puu Waawaa on Hualalai, on the island of
Hawaii (HHP 1993g, Rock 1913, Stone et al. 1990). Approximately 24
individuals are now known, scattered through the area (HHP 1993g; HPCC
1991i, 1993d; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; J. Giffin, in litt., 1992;
J. Lau, in litt., 1992).
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum grows in degraded 'ohi'a-
dominated Montane Mesic Forest, often on aa lava, at elevations between
915 and 1,040 m (3,000 and 3,400 ft) (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Associated species include mamane, lama, 'ala'a, 'iliahi, 'ohe, kolea,
and kopiko (HHP 1993g; HPCC 1993d).
Threats to Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum include browsing,
trampling, and habitat disturbance by cattle, feral pigs, and sheep;
competition from alien plant species, such as kikuyu grass, fountain
grass, lantana, koa haole, and Grevillea robusta (silk oak); habitat
change due to volcanic activity; and fire (HHP 1993g; HPCC 1993d; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; J. Lau, in litt., 1992). In addition, the
species is threatened by a risk of extinction from naturally occurring
events and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of
existing individuals in only one population.
Previous Federal Action
Federal action on these plants began as a result of section 12 of
the Act, which directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to
prepare a report on plants considered to be endangered, threatened, or
extinct in the United States. This report, designated as House Document
No. 94-51, was presented to Congress on January 9, 1975. In that
document, Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea platyphylla (as C. bryanii),
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus, Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, Melicope
zahlbruckneri (as Pelea zahlbruckneri), and Neraudia ovata were
considered to be endangered. Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum was
considered to be threatened. On July 1, 1975, the Service published a
notice in the Federal Register (40 FR 27823) of its acceptance of the
Smithsonian report as a petition within the context of section 4(c)(2)
(now section 4(b)(3)) of the Act, and giving notice of its intention to
review the status of the plant species named therein. As a result of
that review, on June 16, 1976, the Service published a proposed rule in
the Federal Register (41 FR 24523) to determine endangered status
pursuant to section 4 of the Act for approximately 1,700 vascular plant
species, including all of the above species considered to be
endangered. The list of 1,700 plant taxa was assembled on the basis of
comments and data received by the Smithsonian Institution and the
Service in response to House Document No. 94-51 and the July 1, 1975,
Federal Register publication.
General comments received in response to the 1976 proposal are
summarized in an April 26, 1978, Federal Register publication (43 FR
17909). In 1978, amendments to the Act required that all proposals over
two years old be withdrawn. A one-year grace period was given to
proposals already over two years old. On December 10, 1979, the Service
published a notice in the Federal Register (44 FR 70796) withdrawing
the portion of the June 16, 1976, proposal that had not been made
final, along with four other proposals that had expired. The Service
published updated notices of review for plants on December 15, 1980 (45
FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39525), February 21, 1990 (55 FR
6183), September 30, 1993 (58 FR 51144), and February 28, 1996 (61 FR
7596). All of the taxa in this final rule (including synonymous taxa)
have at one time or another been considered either category 1 or
category 2 candidates for Federal listing. Category 1 species are those
for which the Service has on file substantial information on biological
vulnerability and threats to support preparation of listing proposals
but for which listing proposals have not been published because they
were precluded by other listing activities. Category 2 species were
those for which listing as endangered or threatened was possibly
appropriate, but for which sufficient data on biological vulnerability
and threats was not currently available to support proposed rules.
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus and Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis were
considered category 1 candidates on all five notices of review;
Clermontia drepanomorpha, Neraudia ovata, and Pleomele hawaiiensis
(including the synonym Dracaena hawaiiensis) were considered category 1
species in the 1980, 1983, and 1985 notices and category 2 species in
the 1990 and 1993 notices. Cyanea platyphylla (as Cyanea bryanii and
Cyanea fernaldii) was considered a category 1 species in the 1980,
1983, and 1985 notices, but was removed from consideration as a
candidate in 1990 when C. bryanii and C. fernaldii were synonymized.
The resulting taxon, Cyanea platyphylla, was thought to be more common
than previous records indicated. Current information indicates that
removing this taxon from consideration for listing was inappropriate.
Melicope zahlbruckneri appeared as a category 1 candidate in the 1985
notice (as Pelea zahlbruckneri). This taxon was transferred into the
genus Melicope and its status was changed to category 2 in the 1990
notice. Pritchardia schattaueri was considered a category 2 species in
the 1985, 1990, and 1993 notices. Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia
velutina, Phyllostegia warshaueri, Sicyos alba, and Zanthoxylum
dipetalum var. tomentosum all first appeared in the 1990 notice, and
again
[[Page 53145]]
in 1993, as category 2 species. Designation of Category 2 species was
discontinued in the February 28, 1996, notice (61 FR 7596).
Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires the Secretary to make
findings on petitions that present substantial information indicating
the petitioned action may be warranted within 12 months of their
receipt. Section 2(b)(1) of the 1982 amendments further requires all
petitions pending on October 13, 1982, be treated as having been newly
submitted on that date. On October 13, 1983, the Service found that the
petitioned listing of these taxa was warranted, but precluded by other
pending listing actions, in accordance with section 4(b)(3)(B)(iii) of
the Act; notification of this finding was published on January 20, 1984
(49 FR 2485). Such a finding requires the Service to consider the
petition as having been resubmitted, pursuant to section 4(b)(3)(C)(i)
of the Act. The finding was reviewed in October of 1984, 1985, 1986,
1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, and 1993. The proposed rule
published on September 25, 1995 (60 FR 49377) to list these 13 plant
taxa as endangered species constituted the final 12-month finding for
these species.
Based on comments received in response to the proposal (see
Comments and Recommendations below), the Service now determines
Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea platyphylla, Hibiscadelphus
giffardianus, Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, Melicope zahlbruckneri,
Neraudia ovata, Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia velutina,
Phyllostegia warshaueri, Pleomele hawaiiensis, Pritchardia schattaueri,
Sicyos alba, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum to be
endangered.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
In the September 25, 1995, proposed rule and associated
notifications, all interested parties were requested to submit factual
reports or information that might contribute to the development of a
final rule. The public comment period ended on November 24, 1995.
Appropriate State agencies, county governments, Federal agencies,
scientific organizations, and other interested parties were contacted
and requested to comment. A newspaper notice inviting public comment
was published in the ``Honolulu Advertiser'', the ``Kauai Times'', and
the ``Hawaii Herald Tribune'' on October 18, 1995.
Comments were received from nine parties. Five parties supported
the listing of these 13 plant species as endangered species and three
only included an acknowledgement of receiving a copy of the proposed
rule. Four of the comments included additional information on the
numbers of individuals and populations for some of the 13 plant
species. This information has been incorporated into this final rule.
The Service also solicited the expert opinions of four appropriate
and independent specialists regarding pertinent scientific or
commercial data and assumptions relating to the taxonomy, population
models, and biological and ecological information for these 13 species.
Two responses from the specialists were received, and their comments on
the numbers of individuals and populations of six species were
incorporated into this final rule.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act and regulations (50 CFR
part 424) issued to implement the listing provisions of the Act set
forth the criteria for adding species to the Federal lists. A species
may be determined to be an endangered species due to one or more of the
five factors described in section 4(a)(1). The threats facing these 13
taxa are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1.--Summary of Threats
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alien mammals
Species -------------------------------------------- Disease/ Alien Fire Natural Human Limited numbers *
Cattle Pigs Rats Sheep Goats insects plants disasters impacts
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clermontia drepanomorpha.......... ........ X X ....... ....... .......... X ....... P X X1
Cyanea platyphylla................ ........ P P ....... ....... .......... X ....... X X X1,3
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus....... ........ ...... X ....... ....... X X X X ......... X1,3,4
Hibiscadelphus hualalaienis....... P P X P ....... .......... X X X X X1,3,4
Melicope zahlbruckneri............ ........ ...... P ....... ....... X X ....... X ......... X1,3
Neraudia ovata.................... ........ ...... ...... X X X X ....... X X X1,3
Phyllostegia racemosa............. X X ...... ....... ....... .......... X ....... X X X1,3
Phyllostegia velutina............. X X ...... X ....... .......... X X X X X1,3
Phyllostegia warshaueri........... ........ X ...... ....... ....... .......... X ....... .......... X X1,2
Pleomele hawaiiensis.............. X X ...... X X .......... X X X X ..................
Pritchardia schattaueri........... X X X ....... ....... P X ....... X X X1,3
Sicyos alba....................... ........ X ...... ....... ....... .......... X ....... X X X1,2
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. X X ...... X ....... .......... X X X X X1,3
tomentosum.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
KEY: X = Immediate and significant threat. P = Potential threat. * = No more than 100 known individuals and/or no more than 5 known populations. 1 = No
more than 5 known populations. 2 = No more than 10 known individuals. 3 = No more than 100 known individuals. 4 = All original wild populations
extinct; planted individuals only.
These factors and their application to Clermontia drepanomorpha
Rock ('oha wai), Cyanea platyphylla (A. Gray) Hillbr. (haha),
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus Rock (hau kuahiwi), Hibiscadelphus
hualalaiensis Rock (hau kuahiwi), Melicope zahlbruckneri Rock (alani),
Neraudia ovata Gaud. (no common name (NCN)), Phyllostegia racemosa
Benth. (kiponapona), Phyllostegia velutina (Sherff) St. John (NCN),
Phyllostegia warshaueri St. John (NCN), Pleomele hawaiiensis Degener
and I. Degener (hala pepe), Pritchardia schattaueri Hodel (loulu),
Sicyos alba (St. John) Telford ('anunu), and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var.
tomentosum Rock (a'e) are as follows:
A. The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range. The habitats of the plants
included in this final rule have undergone extreme alteration because
of past and present land management practices, including deliberate
alien animal and plant introductions; agricultural, commercial,
[[Page 53146]]
and urban development; and recreational use. Natural disturbances such
as volcanic activity also destroy habitat and can have a significant
effect on small populations of plants. Competition with alien plants as
well as destruction of plants and modification of habitat by introduced
animals are the primary threats facing all of taxa in this final rule
(See Table 1.).
Beginning with Captain James Cook in 1792, early European explorers
introduced livestock, which became feral, increased in number and
range, and caused significant changes to the natural environment of
Hawaii. The 1848 provision for land sales to individuals allowed large-
scale agricultural and ranching ventures to begin. So much land was
cleared for these enterprises that climatic conditions began to change,
and the amount and distribution of rainfall were altered (Wenkam 1969).
Plantation owners supported reforestation programs which resulted in
many alien trees being introduced in the hope that watersheds could be
conserved.
Past and present activities of introduced alien mammals are the
primary factors in altering and degrading vegetation and habitats on
the island of Hawaii where populations of the 13 species occur. Feral
ungulates trample and eat native vegetation and disturb and open areas.
This causes erosion and allows the entry of alien plant taxa (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, Wagner et al. 1990). Eleven taxa in this proposal are
directly threatened by habitat degradation resulting from introduced
ungulates: six taxa are threatened by cattle, two taxa by goats, ten by
pigs, and five by sheep.
Cattle (Bos taurus), the wild progenitor of which was native to
Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia, were introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands in 1793. Large feral herds developed as a result of
restrictions on killing cattle decreed by King Kamehameha I. While
small cattle ranches were developed on Kauai, Oahu, and West Maui, very
large ranches of tens of thousands of acres were created on East Maui
and Hawaii. Much of the land used in these private enterprises was
leased from the State or was privately owned and considered Forest
Reserve and/or Conservation District land. Feral cattle can presently
be found on the island of Hawaii, and ranching is still a major
commercial activity there. Hunting of feral cattle is no longer allowed
in Hawaii (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR)
1985). Cattle eat native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, cause
erosion, create disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, and
spread seeds of alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. The
forest in areas grazed by cattle becomes degraded to grassland pasture,
and plant cover is reduced for many years following removal of cattle
from an area. Several alien grasses and legumes purposely introduced
for cattle forage have become noxious weeds (Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Tomich 1986).
The habitats of many of these 13 plants were degraded in the past
by feral cattle, and this has had effects which still persist. Some
taxa in this final rule that are still directly affected by cattle
include: Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia velutina, Pleomele
hawaiiensis, Pritchardia schattaueri, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var.
tomentosum. The Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis site is currently fenced
to exclude cattle and pigs, but these alien mammals constitute a
potential threat to this taxon if the fencing is not monitored and
maintained (HHP 1991i2, 1993g; HPCC 1991e, 1991i, 1992d, 1992e1, 1993b,
1993d; Hodel 1980, 1985; Pratt and Cuddihy 1990; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; J. Jeffrey, pers. comm., 1994).
Pigs (Sus scrofa) are originally native to Europe, northern Africa,
Asia Minor, and Asia. European pigs, introduced to Hawaii by Captain
James Cook in 1778, became feral and invaded forested areas, especially
wet and mesic forests and dry areas at high elevations. They are
currently present on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii and inhabit
rain forests and grasslands. Pig hunting is allowed on all islands
either year-round or during certain months, depending on the area
(Hawaii DLNR n.d., 1985). While rooting in the ground in search of the
invertebrates and plant material they eat, feral pigs disturb and
destroy vegetative cover, trample plants and seedlings, and threaten
forest regeneration by damaging seeds and seedlings. They disturb soil
substrates and cause erosion, especially on slopes. Alien plant seeds
are dispersed in their hooves and coats as well as through their
digestive tracts, and the disturbed soil is fertilized by their feces,
helping establish these plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Smith 1985,
Stone 1985, Tomich 1986, Wagner et al. 1990). Feral pigs pose an
immediate threat to one or more populations of the following taxa:
Clermontia drepanomorpha, Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia velutina,
Phyllostegia warshaueri, Pleomele hawaiiensis, Pritchardia schattaueri,
Sicyos alba, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum. The Cyanea
platyphylla population is currently fenced to exclude pigs and the
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis site to exclude pigs and cattle, but these
alien mammals still pose a potential threat to these taxa if fencing is
not monitored and maintained (Clarke et al. 1983; HHP 1991e1, 1991e4,
1991j1; HPCC 1990b, 1991a, 1991f, 1991h, 1992a to 1992d, 1993a, 1993c;
Pratt and Cuddihy 1990; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; J. Jeffrey and L.
Pratt, pers. comms., 1994).
Goats (Capra hircus), originally native to the Middle East and
India, were successfully introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1792,
and currently there are populations on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and
Hawaii. On Hawaii, goats damage low-elevation dry forest, montane
parkland, subalpine woodlands, and alpine grasslands. Goats are managed
in Hawaii as a game animal, but many herds populate inaccessible areas
where hunting has little effect on their numbers. Goat hunting is
allowed year-round or during certain months, depending on the area
(Hawaii DLNR n.d., 1985). Goats browse on introduced grasses and native
plants, especially in drier and more open ecosystems. They also trample
roots and seedlings, cause erosion, and promote the invasion of alien
plants. They are able to forage in extremely rugged terrain and have a
high reproductive capacity (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Culliney 1988,
Tomich 1986). Neraudia ovata and Pleomele hawaiiensis are currently
threatened by goats (Char 1987; HPCC 1993b; M. Bruegmann, in litt.,
1996).
Sheep (Ovis aries) have become established on the island of Hawaii
(Tomich 1986) since their introduction almost 200 years ago (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990). Sheep roam the upper elevation dry forests of Hualalai
(above 1,000 m (3,300 ft)), causing damage similar to that of goats
(Stone 1985). Sheep have decimated vast areas of native forest and
shrubland on Mauna Kea and continue to do so as a managed game species.
Sheep threaten the habitat of the following plant species in this final
rule: Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, Neraudia ovata, Phyllostegia
velutina, Pleomele hawaiiensis, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var.
tomentosum (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; Stone 1985; M. Bruegmann, in litt.,
1994, 1996).
Land development for housing and commercial activities threatens
Neraudia ovata, Pleomele hawaiiensis, and Pritchardia schattaueri since
individuals of these species grow on private land that may be developed
(Char 1987; HHP 1991j1; HPCC 1992e2; Nagata 1984; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994). In addition, the populations of
[[Page 53147]]
Phyllostegia velutina within the Kulani Correctional Facility are
potentially threatened by expansion of the prison facilities (M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994). Clermontia drepanomorpha and Phyllostegia
warshaueri are threatened by irrigation ditch improvements (HHP 1993a1,
HPCC 1993a, HPCC 1992c). Phyllostegia racemosa is threatened by logging
operations (Pratt and Cuddihy 1990).
B. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes. Unrestricted collecting for scientific or
horticultural purposes and excessive visits by individuals interested
in seeing rare plants are potential threats to all of the 13 taxa. This
is a threat to Pleomele hawaiiensis because little regeneration is
occurring in the wild. All of the other 12 taxa in this final rule are
also threatened by overcollection, since each taxon comprises 1 to 3
populations and 100 or fewer known individuals, or exist only as
cultivated individuals. Any collection of whole plants or reproductive
parts of any of these species could cause an adverse impact on the gene
pool and threaten the survival of the species.
C. Disease or predation. Pigs, cattle, goats, or sheep have been
reported in areas where populations of most of the 13 taxa occur.
Extensive browse damage from goats and/or sheep was observed on all
individuals of the newly rediscovered population of Neraudia ovata in
Pohakuloa Training Area, and numerous seedlings were completely
defoliated (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1996). As the other 12 taxa are not
known to be unpalatable to these ungulates, predation is a probable
threat where those animals have been reported, potentially affecting
the following taxa: Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea platyphylla,
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia
velutina, Phyllostegia warshaueri, Pleomele hawaiiensis, Pritchardia
schattaueri, Sicyos alba, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum.
The lack of seedling production or survival in two of the taxa
(Pleomele hawaiiensis and Pritchardia schattaueri) and the occurrence
of some populations or taxa only in areas inaccessible to ungulates
seem to indicate the effect that browsing mammals, especially cattle
and goats, have had in restricting the distribution of these plants.
Of the four species of rodents which have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, the species with the greatest impact on the native
flora and fauna is probably Rattus rattus (roof or black rat), which
now occurs on all the main Hawaiian Islands around human habitations,
in cultivated fields, and in dry to wet forests. Roof rats, and to a
lesser extent Mus musculus (house mouse), R. exulans (Polynesian rat),
and R. norvegicus (Norway rat), eat the fruits of some native plants,
especially those with large, fleshy fruits. Many native Hawaiian plants
produce their fruit over an extended period of time, and this produces
a prolonged food supply which supports rodent populations (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990). Rats damage fruit of Pritchardia schattaueri and fruits,
flowers, and bark of Hibiscadelphus giffardianus and Hibiscadelphus
hualalaiensis (Baker and Allen 1978; HPCC 1992e2; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994). Rats probably feed on the
fruits of Cyanea platyphylla and Melicope zahlbruckneri (M. Bruegmann,
in litt., 1994; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994). Girdling by rats has been
observed for Clermontia drepanomorpha (Bruegmann 1990).
Sophonia rufofascia (two-spotted leafhopper) is a recently
introduced insect that causes feeding damage on leaves, typically in
the form of stippling and yellowing. In addition to mechanical feeding
damage, this insect may introduce a plant virus. It is suspected of
causing severe dieback of the native fern Dicranopteris linearis
(uluhe) and economic damage to crops and ornamental plants in Hawaii.
The two-spotted leafhopper is a threat to Hibiscadelphus giffardianus
and Melicope zahlbruckneri (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; Adam Asquith,
USFWS, pers. comm., 1994).
The native plant bug, Hyalopeplus pellucidus, was found feeding and
breeding on Hibiscadelphus giffardianus. Leaf yellowing is caused by
this insect, which has been known to achieve large populations and
cause economic damage to some crops (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; A.
Asquith, pers. comm., 1994).
Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly) was first collected on
Oahu in 1978 (Nakahara 1981). Spiralling whitefly is a threat to
Neraudia ovata (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Some species of Pritchardia are known to be susceptible to lethal
yellowing, which is a bacterium-like organism producing disease in many
palms. This disease is not yet reported in Hawaii, but if it were ever
accidentally introduced on plant material brought into the State, it
would be a potential threat to Pritchardia schattaueri. In addition,
cultivated Pritchardia specimens in areas outside Hawaii may be
affected by the disease (Hull 1980).
D. The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms. Seven of the
13 taxa in this final rule have populations located on privately owned
land. Pritchardia schattaueri is the only plant of the 13 taxa
exclusively on private land. The following taxa occur exclusively on
State land--Cyanea platyphylla, Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, and
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum. Two of these taxa,
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum,
are found exclusively on State land leased to a private ranch. Four of
the taxa (Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea platyphylla, Phyllostegia
velutina, and Sicyos alba) have one or more populations located in
State NARs or a State wildlife sanctuary, which have rules and
regulations for the protection of resources (Hawaii DLNR 1981; HRS,
sects. 183D-4, 184-5, 195-5, and 195-8). However, most of these areas
still support large populations of pigs maintained for sport hunting
(M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
One or more populations of 9 of the 13 taxa are located on land
classified within conservation districts and owned by the State of
Hawaii or private companies or individuals. Regardless of the owner,
lands in these districts, among other purposes, are regarded as
necessary for the protection of endemic biological resources and the
maintenance or enhancement of the conservation of natural resources.
Activities permitted in conservation districts are chosen by
considering how best to make a multiple use of the land (HRS, sect.
205-2). Some uses, such as maintaining animals for hunting, are based
on policy decisions, while others, such as preservation of endangered
species, are mandated by State laws. Requests for amendments to
district boundaries or variances within existing classifications can be
made by government agencies and private landowners (HRS, sect. 205-4).
Before decisions about these requests are made, the impact of the
proposed reclassification on ``preservation or maintenance of important
natural systems or habitat'' (HRS, sects. 205-4, 205-17) as well as the
maintenance of natural resources is required to be taken into account
(HRS, sects. 205-2, 205-4). For any proposed land use change which will
occur on county or State land, will be funded in part or whole by
county or State funds, or will occur within land classified as
conservation district, an environmental assessment is required to
determine whether or not
[[Page 53148]]
the environment will be significantly affected (HRS, chapt. 343). If it
is found that an action will have a significant effect, preparation of
a full Environmental Impact Statement is required. Hawaii environmental
policy, and thus approval of land use, is required by law to safeguard
``* * * the State's unique natural environmental characteristics * *
*'' (HRS, sect. 344-3(1)). However, despite the existence of such State
laws and regulations which give protection to Hawaii's native plants,
their enforcement is difficult due to limited funding and personnel.
Furthermore, State law provides little protection for plants not on
state land or in designated conservation districts.
Listing of these 13 plant species will trigger State listing under
Hawaii's Endangered Species Act and supplement the protection available
under other State laws. The Federal Act will, therefore, offer
additional protection to these species. For example, it is a violation
of State law to take, possess, or export an endangered plant species
(HRS sec. 195D-4(e)). In turn, it would be a violation of the Federal
Act for any person to remove, cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any
listed plant in knowing violation of State law or regulation or in the
course of any violation of a State criminal trespass law, the lack of
adequate resources to enforce State laws and regulations makes this
provision particularly important. In addition, State law contains
provisions requiring consideration of endangered plants in certain
state and private actions which would be triggered by listing under the
Federal ACT. (See Guidelines to ``Protect endangered species of
individual plants and animals.'' HRS, sec. 344-4(3) (A)). State laws
relating to the conservation of biological resources allow for the
acquisition of land as well as the development and implementation of
programs concerning the conservation of biological resources (HRS,
sect. 195D-5(a)). The State also may enter into agreements with Federal
agencies to administer and manage any area required for the
conservation, management, enhancement, or protection of endangered
species (HRS, sect. 195D-5(c)). Funds for these activities could be
made available under section 6 (State Cooperative Agreements) of the
Federal Act for these 13 taxa. The Hawaii DLNR is mandated to initiate
changes in conservation district boundaries to include ``the habitat of
rare native species of flora and fauna within the conservation
district'' (HRS, sect. 195D-5.1).
Although two species, Hibiscadelphus giffardianus and Melicope
zahlbruckneri, are restricted to Federal land within HVNP and are
actively managed by HVNP, they are still threatened with extinction
from naturally occurring events. Hibiscadelphus giffardianus is known
only from the 24 individuals that have been replanted into original
habitat by HVNP. Melicope zahlbruckneri is known only from one
population of 30 to 35 individuals. Both of these species are
threatened by the two-spotted leafhopper, an introduced insect that is
spreading throughout the Hawaiian Islands, may reach epidemic
proportions if not controlled, and for which there is currently no
known control.
Two additional species, Phyllostegia racemosa and Pleomele
hawaiiensis, have one population each on Federal land within HVNP.
However, the majority of the populations and individuals of these
species occur on State or private lands.
One of the two known populations of Neraudia ovata occurs within
the U.S. Army's Pohakuloa Training Area. The Army is fencing the
plants, however, the other population is located on private land.
E. Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued
existence. The small numbers of populations and individuals of most of
these taxa increase the potential for extinction from naturally
occurring events. The limited gene pool may depress reproductive vigor,
or a single human-caused or natural environmental disturbance could
destroy a significant percentage of the individuals or the only known
extant population. This constitutes a major threat to 12 of the 13 taxa
(See Table 1.). Two of the 13 taxa, Melicope zahlbruckneri and
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum, are known from a single
population. Eight other taxa, Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea
platyphylla, Neraudia ovata, Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia
velutina, Phyllostegia warshaueri, Pritchardia schattaueri, and Sicyos
alba, are known from only two to five populations. Eleven of the 13
taxa are estimated to number no more than 100 known individuals. Two
taxa, Hibiscadelphus giffardianus and Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, are
extinct in the wild and are known only from cultivated material.
One or more of 21 taxa of introduced plants threaten all 13 of the
taxa. The original native flora of Hawaii consisted of about 1,000
species, 89 percent of which were endemic. Of the total native and
naturalized Hawaiian flora of 1,817 species, 47 percent were introduced
from other parts of the world and nearly 100 species have become pests
(Wagner et al. 1990). Naturalized, introduced plant taxa compete with
native plants for space, light, water, and nutrients (Cuddihy and Stone
1990). Some of these taxa were brought to Hawaii by various groups of
people, including the Polynesian immigrants, for food or cultural
reasons. Plantation owners, alarmed at the reduction of water resources
for their crops caused by the destruction of native forest cover by
grazing feral animals, supported the introduction of alien tree species
for reforestation. Ranchers intentionally introduced pasture grasses
and other species for agriculture, and sometimes they inadvertently
introduced weed seeds as well. Other plants were brought to Hawaii for
their potential horticultural value (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Wenkam
1969).
Lantana camara (lantana), brought to Hawaii as an ornamental plant,
is an aggressive, thicket-forming shrub which can now be found on all
of the main islands in mesic forests, dry shrublands, and other dry,
disturbed habitats (Wagner et al. 1990). Lantana threatens Pleomele
hawaiiensis and the only known populations of Hibiscadelphus
hualalaiensis, Neraudia ovata and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum
(HHP 1993c2; HPCC 1992a, 1993b, 1993d; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), a naturalized shrub which is
sometimes the dominant species in low elevation, dry, disturbed areas
on all of the main Hawaiian islands, threatens Neraudia ovata, Pleomele
hawaiiensis, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (Geesnick et al.
1990; HPCC 1993d; Nishida 1993; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Passiflora mollissima (banana poka), a woody vine, poses a serious
problem to mesic forests on Kauai and Hawaii by covering trees,
reducing the amount of light which reaches trees as well as understory,
and causing damage and death to trees by the weight of the vines.
Animals, especially feral pigs, eat the fruit and distribute the seeds
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Escobar 1990). Banana poka threatens
Phyllostegia racemosa and Sicyos alba (HPCC 1993c; J. Jeffrey, pers.
comm., 1994). Passiflora ligularis (sweet granadilla) was first
collected in Hawaii in 1909, and has since spread to mesic and wet
areas of Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, and Hawaii (Escobar 1990). This taxon
threatens one population of Cyanea platyphylla (HPCC 1991a). After
escaping from cultivation, Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry)
became naturalized on most of the main Hawaiian Islands and threatens
Pleomele hawaiiensis, Pritchardia
[[Page 53149]]
schattaueri and one of only two known populations of Neraudia ovata
(Nishida 1993; Wagner et al. 1990; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Juncus planifolius is a perennial rush which has naturalized in moist,
open, disturbed depressions on margins of forests and in bogs on Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii (Coffey 1990). Juncus planifolius is a
threat to Phyllostegia warshaueri (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava), an invasive shrub or small
tree native to tropical America, has become naturalized on all of the
main Hawaiian islands. Like Christmas berry, strawberry guava is
capable of forming dense stands that exclude other plant taxa (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990) and is dispersed mainly by feral pigs and fruit-eating
birds (Smith 1985). This alien plant grows primarily in mesic and wet
habitats and provides food for several alien animal species, including
feral pigs and game birds, which disperse the plant's seeds through the
forest (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1985). Strawberry guava is considered
one of the greatest alien plant threats to Hawaii's rain forests and is
known to pose a direct threat to Pritchardia schattaueri, Sicyos alba,
Cyanea platyphylla, and Phyllostegia warshaueri (Cuddihy et al. 1982;
HHP 1991g2; HPCC 1991a, 1992e1; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Psidium guajava (common guava) was brought to Hawaii and has become
widely naturalized on all the main islands, forming dense stands in
disturbed areas. Common guava invades disturbed sites, forming dense
thickets in dry as well as mesic and wet forests (Smith 1985, Wagner et
al. 1990). This species also provides food for several alien animal
species, including feral pigs and game birds, which disperse the
plant's seeds through the forest (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1985).
Common guava threatens Pritchardia schattaueri and Cyanea platyphylla
(Cuddihy et al. 1982; HPCC 1991a6, 1991a9; HPCC 1992e1; M. Bruegmann,
in litt., 1994).
A recent introduction to the Hawaiian Islands, Rubus ellipticus
(yellow Himalayan raspberry) is rapidly becoming a major weed pest in
wet forests, pastures, and other open areas on the island of Hawaii. It
forms large thorny thickets and displaces native plants. Its ability to
invade the understory of wet forests enables it to fill a niche
presently unoccupied by any other major wet forest weed in Hawaii
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990). This has resulted in an extremely rapid
population expansion of this alien plant in recent years. Phyllostegia
velutina and Sicyos alba are threatened by yellow Himalayan raspberry
(HPCC 1990b, 1993c). A related species, Rubus rosifolius
(thimbleberry), was introduced from Asia in the 1880s to the island of
Hawaii and is now found in disturbed mesic and wet forests throughout
the Hawaiian Islands. Although it is less aggressive than other alien
species of Rubus, thimbleberry can become very abundant locally,
especially in areas disturbed by pigs (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Wagner
et al. 1990). This species is a threat to Clermontia drepanomorpha,
Pritchardia schattaueri, Cyanea platyphylla, and Phyllostegia
warshaueri (Cuddihy et al. 1982; HHP 1991g2; HPCC 1991a, 1993a; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Grevillea robusta (silk-oak) was extensively planted in Hawaii for
timber and is now naturalized on most of the main islands (Smith 1985,
Wagner et al. 1990). Silk-oak threatens the only known population of
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (HPCC 1993d). Tibouchina herbacea
(glorybush) first became established on the island of Hawaii in the
late 1970's and, by 1982, was collected in Lanilili on West Maui
(Almeda 1990). Although the disruptive potential of this alien plant is
not fully known, glorybush appears to be invading mesic and wet forests
of Hawaii, and is considered a threat to Phyllostegia warshaueri (HPCC
1992c).
Several hundred species of grasses have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, many for animal forage. Of the approximately 100
grass species which have become naturalized, 8 species threaten 11 of
the 13 taxa in this final rule. Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet
vernalgrass) is a perennial, tufted grass which has naturalized in
pastures, disturbed areas in wet forest, and sometimes in subalpine
shrubland on Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii and is a threat to Phyllostegia
racemosa (O'Connor 1990; J. Jeffrey, pers. comm. 1994). The perennial
grass Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass), naturalized in moist to wet
disturbed areas on most Hawaiian Islands, produces a dense ground
cover, even on poor soil, and threatens the only known populations of
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus and Melicope zahlbruckneri (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990; O'Connor 1990; Smith 1985; L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994). A
related species, Paspalum dilatatum (Dallis grass) has become
naturalized and common in wet to dry grassland, fields, and roadsides
on most Hawaiian Islands, and also threatens Hibiscadelphus
giffardianus and Melicope zahlbruckneri (O'Connor 1990; L. Pratt, pers.
comm., 1994). Ehrharta stipoides (meadow ricegrass) is naturalized in
openings in wet forest and other moist, shaded sites on Oahu, Maui, and
Hawaii (O'Connor 1990). Meadow ricegrass is the third grass species to
threaten Hibiscadelphus giffardianus and Melicope zahlbruckneri. All
three of these grass species prevent seedling establishment of the two
species (L. Pratt, pers. comm., 1994).
Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass), an aggressive perennial
grass introduced to Hawaii as a pasture grass, withstands trampling and
grazing and has naturalized on four Hawaiian Islands in dry to mesic
forest. It produces thick mats which choke out other plants and prevent
their seedlings from establishing and has been declared a noxious weed
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 360) (O'Connor 1990, Smith
1985). Kikuyu grass is a threat to Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia
velutina, Pritchardia schattaueri, and the only known populations of
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum
(HHP 1992b, 1993c2, 1993g; HPCC 1992a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; L.
Lau, in litt., 1990; J. Jeffrey, pers. comm., 1994).
Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass) is a fire-adapted bunch grass
that has spread rapidly over bare lava flows and open areas on the
island of Hawaii since its introduction in the early 1900s. Fountain
grass is particularly detrimental to Hawaii's dry forests because it is
able to invade areas once dominated by native plants, where it
interferes with plant regeneration, carries fires into areas not
usually prone to fires, and increases the likelihood of fires (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, O'Connor 1990, Smith 1985). Fountain grass threatens
Neraudia ovata, Phyllostegia velutina, Pleomele hawaiiensis, and the
only known population of Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (HHP
1991h5, 1993g; HPCC 1990a, 1991c, 1993b; Nishida 1993; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; J. Lau, in litt., 1990; C. Imada, pers. comm., 1994).
Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass), native to tropical Asia, has become
naturalized in mesic valleys, wet forests, and along streams on Oahu,
Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii. First collected in 1903, major infestations
can now be found in the Olaa area and the windward side of the island
of Hawaii (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, O'Connor 1990). Palmgrass is a
threat to Sicyos alba and Phyllostegia warshaueri (HPCC 1993c; M.
Bruegmann, in litt., 1994). Paspalum urvillei (Vasey grass) is
widespread in disturbed areas on the islands of Maui and Hawaii. It has
invaded some rain
[[Page 53150]]
forests and montane mesic communities, and is a threat to Phyllostegia
racemosa and Phyllostegia velutina (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; HPCC 1992b;
O'Connor 1990; J. Jeffrey, pers. comm., 1994).
Because Hawaiian plants were subjected to fire during their
evolution only in areas of volcanic activity and from occasional
lightning strikes, they are not adapted to recurring fire regimes and
do not quickly recover following a fire. Alien plants are often better
adapted to fire than native plant species, and some fire-adapted
grasses have become widespread in Hawaii. Native shrubland and dry
forest can thus be converted to land dominated by alien grasses. The
presence of such species in Hawaiian ecosystems greatly increases the
intensity, extent, and frequency of fire, especially during drier
months or drought. Fire-adapted alien plant taxa can reestablish in a
burned area, resulting in a reduction in the amount of native
vegetation after each fire. Fire can destroy dormant seeds as well as
plants, even in steep or inaccessible areas. Fires may result from
natural causes, or they may be accidentally or purposely started by
humans. Three fires have occurred in the Puu Waawaa/Kaupulehu dry
forests on the slopes of Hualalai over the last ten years, and have
destroyed habitat as well as individuals of many endangered species,
including Pleomele hawaiiensis (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; HHP 1991h4;
HPCC 1992d, 1993b; J. Lau, in litt., 1990). Fire is also a threat to
Phyllostegia velutina and the only known populations of Hibiscadelphus
hualalaiensis and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (HPCC 1991i,
1992a, 1993c2; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Natural changes to habitat and substrate can result in the death of
individual plants as well as the destruction of their habitat. This
especially affects the continued existence of taxa or populations with
limited numbers and/or narrow ranges and is often exacerbated by human
disturbance and land use practices (See Factor A.). Two of the five
volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaii, Kilauea and Mauna Loa, are
active and a third, Hualalai, is dormant but may erupt again. Ten of
the taxa in this final rule are in areas where volcanic activity could
result in the destruction of all of the populations: Hibiscadelphus
giffardianus, Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, Melicope zahlbruckneri,
Neraudia ovata, Phyllostegia velutina, Pleomele hawaiiensis,
Pritchardia schattaueri, Sicyos alba, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var.
tomentosum. One of the two known populations of Cyanea platyphylla and
some populations of Phyllostegia racemosa are also threatened by
volcanic activity.
People are more likely to come into contact with taxa which have
populations near trails or roads or in recreational areas. Alien plants
may be introduced into such areas as seeds on footwear, or people may
cause erosion, trample plants, or start fires (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
The following taxa in this final rule have populations in recreational
areas, close to roads or trails, or in areas where ranching or logging
is occurring, and are potentially threatened by human disturbance:
Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea platyphylla, Hibiscadelphus
hualalaiensis, Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia velutina, Sicyos
alba, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum (Bruegmann 1990; Corn
1983; HHP 1991f1; HPCC 1991d, 1991h, 1992b; Pratt and Cuddihy 1990;
Stemmermann 1987).
The Service has carefully assessed the best scientific and
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and
future threats faced by these taxa in determining to make this rule
final. Based on this evaluation, this rulemaking will list these 13
plant taxa as endangered: Clermontia drepanomorpha, Cyanea platyphylla,
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus, Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis, Melicope
zahlbruckneri, Neraudia ovata, Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia
velutina, Phyllostegia warshaueri, Pleomele hawaiiensis, Pritchardia
schattaueri, Sicyos alba, and Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. tomentosum.
Eleven of the taxa number no more than 100 individuals and are known
from 5 or fewer populations. The 13 taxa are threatened by one or more
of the following--habitat degradation and/or predation by cattle, pigs,
goats, sheep, insects, and rats; competition from alien plants; fire
and volcanic activity; human impacts; and lack of legal protection or
difficulty in enforcing laws which are already in effect. Small
population size and limited distribution make these taxa particularly
vulnerable to extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor from
naturally occurring events. Because these 13 taxa are in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges,
they fit the definition of endangered under the Act.
Critical habitat is not being proposed for the 13 taxa included in
this rule, for reasons discussed in the ``Critical Habitat'' section of
this proposal.
Critical Habitat
Critical habitat is defined in section 3 of the Act as: (i) the
specific areas within the geographical area occupied by a species, at
the time it is listed in accordance with the Act, on which are found
those physical or biological features (I) essential to the conservation
of the species and (II) that may require special management
consideration or protection; and (ii) specific areas outside the
geographical area occupied by a species at the time it is listed, upon
a determination that such areas are essential for the conservation of
the species. ``Conservation'' means the use of all methods and
procedures needed to bring the species to the point at which listing
under the Act is no longer necessary.
Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, and implementing
regulations (50 CFR 424.12) require that, to the maximum extent prudent
and determinable, the Secretary designate critical habitat at the time
a species is listed as endangered or threatened. The Service finds that
designation of critical habitat is not presently prudent for these 13
taxa. Service regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state that designation
of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the following
situations exist--(1) The species is threatened by taking or other
human activity, and identification of critical habitat can be expected
to increase the degree of threat to the species, or (2) such
designation of critical habitat would not be beneficial to the species.
As discussed under Factor B, these taxa are threatened by
overcollection, due to extremely low population sizes. The publication
of precise maps and descriptions of critical habitat in the Federal
Register and local newspapers as required in a proposal for critical
habitat would increase the degree of threat to these plants from take
or vandalism and, therefore, could contribute to their decline. The
listing of these taxa as endangered publicizes the rarity of the plants
and, thus, can make these plants attractive to researchers, curiosity
seekers, or collectors of rare plants. All involved parties and the
major landowners have been notified of the location and importance of
protecting the habitat of these taxa. Additional protection of the
habitat of these taxa will be addressed through the recovery process
and through the section 7 consultation process. For example, in the
case of Neraudia ovata, the species is confined to small geographic
areas, and each population is composed of so few individuals that the
determinations for jeopardy to the species and adverse modification of
[[Page 53151]]
critical habitat would be similar. Therefore, designation of critical
habitat for species already listed provides little additional
protection beyond that provided by the jeopardy prohibition of section
7. For these reasons, the Service finds that designation of critical
habitat for these 13 taxa is not prudent at this time. Such a
designation would increase the degree of threat from vandalism,
collecting, or other human activities and is unlikely to aid in the
conservation of these taxa.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to taxa listed as endangered under
the Endangered Species Act include recovery actions, requirements for
Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain activities.
Recognition through listing results in conservation actions by Federal,
State, and local agencies, private organizations, and individuals. The
Act provides for possible land acquisition and cooperation with the
State and requires that recovery plans be developed for listed species.
The protection required of Federal agencies and the prohibitions
against certain activities involving listed plants are discussed, in
part, below.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any taxon that is listed as
endangered. Regulations implementing this interagency cooperation
provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402. Section 7(a)(2)
requires Federal agencies to ensure that activities they authorize,
fund, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence
of such a species. If a Federal action may affect a listed species, the
responsible Federal agency must enter into formal consultation with the
Service. One or more populations of five of the taxa in this final rule
are located on federally owned and/or managed land. Four taxa are
located in HVNP and one of these taxa is also found in Hakalau Forest
National Wildlife Refuge. HVNP is actively managing Kipuka Puaulu to
maintain Melicope zahlbruckneri and the cultivated plants of
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus (Mountainspring 1985). Staff at Hakalau
National Wildlife Refuge are monitoring Phyllostegia racemosa
populations and controlling threats (J. Jeffrey, pers. comm., 1994).
One of the two known populations of Neraudia ovata is found on Army
land. The Army is currently constructing small fences around these
plants to protect them from browsing by goats and sheep (LTC, FA Lloyd
Mues, U.S. Army Garrison, Hawaii, in litt., 1996).
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered plant
species. With respect to the 13 plant taxa listed here as endangered,
all of the prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented by
50 CFR 17.61, will apply. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal
for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to
import or export any endangered plant; transport such species in
interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a commercial activity;
sell or offer for sale such species in interstate or foreign commerce;
remove and reduce to possession any such species from areas under
Federal jurisdiction; maliciously damage or destroy any such species on
any area under Federal jurisdiction; or remove, cut, dig up, damage, or
destroy any such species on any other area in knowing violation of any
State law or regulation including State criminal trespass law. Certain
exceptions to the prohibitions apply to agents of the Service and State
conservation agencies.
The Act and 50 CFR 17.62 and 17.63 also provide for the issuance of
permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities involving
endangered plant species under certain circumstances. Such permits are
available for scientific purposes and to enhance the propagation or
survival of the species.
It is the policy of the Service, published in the Federal Register
on July 1, 1994, (59 FR 34272) to identify to the maximum extent
practicable at the time a species is listed those activities that would
or would not constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. Such
information is intended to clarify the potential impacts of a species'
listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the species' range.
Five of the species occur on Federal lands under the jurisdiction of
the U.S. National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the
U.S. Army. Collection, damage, or destruction of these species on
Federal lands is prohibited without a Federal endangered species
permit. Such activities on non-Federal lands would constitute a
violation of section 9 if conducted in knowing violation of Hawaii
State law or regulations or in violation of a State criminal trespass
law (see Hawaii State Law section below). The Service is not aware of
any trade in these species.
Questions regarding whether specific activities will constitute a
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Pacific
Islands Ecoregion Manager (see ADDRESSES section). Requests for copies
of the regulations concerning listed plants and inquiries regarding
prohibitions and permits may be addressed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Ecological Services, Endangered Species Permits, 911 N.E. 11th
Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97232-4181 (telephone: 503/231-6241;
facsimile: 503/231-6243).
Hawaii State Law
Hawaii's Endangered Species Act states--``Any species of aquatic
life, wildlife, or land plant that has been determined to be an
endangered species pursuant to the [Federal] Endangered Species Act
shall be deemed to be an endangered species under the provisions of
this chapter * * *'' (Hawaii Revised Statutes (HRS), sect. 195D-4(a)).
Therefore, Federal listing automatically invokes listing under Hawaii
State law, which prohibits taking of endangered plants in the State and
encourages conservation by State agencies (HRS, sect. 195D-4 and 5).
None of the 13 taxa in this final rule are presently listed as an
endangered species by the State of Hawaii.
National Environmental Policy Act
The Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that Environmental
Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements, as defined under the
authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be
prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section
4(a) of the Act. A notice outlining the Service's reasons for this
determination was published in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983
(48 FR 49244).
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited herein is available upon
request from the Pacific Islands Ecoregion Office (see ADDRESSES
section).
Author
The author of this final rule is Marie M. Bruegmann, Pacific
Islands Ecoregion Office (see ADDRESSES section).
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, the Service hereby amends part 17, subchapter B of
chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth
below:
[[Page 53152]]
PART 17--[AMENDED]
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
2. Section 17.12(h) is amended by adding the following, in
alphabetical order under FLOWERING PLANTS, to the List of Endangered
and Threatened Plants to read as follows:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
-------------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family Status When Critical habitat Special rules
Scientific name Common name listed
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FLOWERING PLANTS
* * * * * * *
Clermontia drepanomorpha......... 'Oha wai............ U.S.A. (HI)......... Campanulaceae--Bellf E 595 NA NA
lower.
* * * * * * *
Cyanea platyphylla............... Haha................ U.S.A. (HI)......... Campanulaceae--Bellf E 595 NA NA
lower.
* * * * * * *
Hibiscadelphus giffardianus...... Hau kuahiwi......... U.S.A. (HI)......... Malvaceae--Mallow... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensis..... Hau kuahiwi......... U.S.A. (HI)......... Malvaceae--Mallow... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Melicope zahlbruckneri........... Alani............... U.S.A. (HI)......... Rutaceae--Citrus.... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Neraudia ovata................... None................ U.S.A. (HI)......... Urticaceae--Nettle.. E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia racemosa............ Kiponapona.......... U.S.A. (HI)......... Lamiaceae--Mint..... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia velutina............ None................ U.S.A. (HI)......... Lamiaceae--Mint..... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia warshaueri.......... None................ U.S.A. (HI)......... Lamiaceae--Mint..... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Pleomele hawaiiensis............. Hala pepe........... U.S.A. (HI)......... Agavaceae--Agave.... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Pritchardia schattaueri.......... Loulu............... U.S.A. (HI)......... Arecaceae--Palm..... E 595 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Sicyos alba...................... 'Anunu.............. U.S.A. (HI)......... Curcurbitaceae--Gour E 595 NA NA
d.
* * * * * * *
Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. A'e................. U.S.A. (HI)......... Rutaceae--Citrus.... E 595 NA NA
tomentosum.
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 53153]]
Dated: September 23, 1996.
John G. Rogers,
Acting Director, Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 96-25559 Filed 10-9-96; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P
