[Federal Register Volume 60, Number 192 (Wednesday, October 4, 1995)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 51968-51978]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 95-24638]
=======================================================================
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
50 CFR Parts 222 and 227
[Docket No. 950919232-5232-01; I.D. 041995B]
RIN 0648-XX27
Threatened Fish and Wildlife; Change in Listing Status of Steller
Sea Lions Under the Endangered Species Act
AGENCY: National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Commerce
ACTION: Proposed rule; request for comments.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUMMARY: NMFS is proposing to reclassify the Steller sea lion,
Eumetopias jubatus. This species currently is listed under the
Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) as threatened throughout its
range, which extends from California and associated waters to Alaska,
including the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands, and then into the
Bering Sea and North Pacific and into Russian waters and territory.
Based on biological information collected since the species was
listed as threatened in 1990, NMFS now proposes to re-classify Steller
sea lions as two distinct population segments under the ESA. NMFS
proposes to classify the Steller sea lion population segment west of
144 deg. W. long. (a line near Cape Suckling, AK) as endangered, and to
maintain the ESA threatened listing for the remainder of the U.S.
population. NMFS is requesting public comments on this proposed action.
[DATES: Comments and information must be received by January 2, 1996.
ADDRESSES: Comments and information should be addressed to Chief,
Marine Mammal Division, Office of Protected Resources (F/PR), NMFS,
1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910. Copies of the Steller
sea lion status review document, the Steller Sea Lion Recovery Team
(Recovery Team) meeting summary and recommendations regarding
reclassification, and a Population Viability Analyses of Steller sea
lions in Alaska may be obtained from Susan Mello, Protected Resources
Management Division, Alaska Regional Office, NMFS, P.O.Box 21668,
Juneau, AK 99802-1668.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Susan Mello, 907-586-7235 or Michael
Payne, F/PR, NMFS, 301-713-2322.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
I. Background
NMFS determined that the Steller sea lion was a threatened species
under the ESA (55 FR 49294, November 26, 1990; see also, 55 FR 50005,
December 4, 1990). The species was listed throughout its range because
of a precipitous decline in abundance. This decline was concentrated
primarily in areas near the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands.
The final rule imposed protective regulations to reduce direct
causes of Steller sea lion mortality, to restrict opportunities for
intentional and unintentional harassment of Steller sea lions, and to
minimize disturbance and interference with Steller sea lion behavior
including disruption of foraging behavior, especially at pupping and
breeding sites.
As a result of ESA section 7 consultations on the effects of the
North Pacific federally-managed groundfish fisheries, NMFS implemented
additional protective measures in 1991, 1992, and 1993 to reduce the
effects of certain commercial groundfish fisheries on Steller sea lion
foraging (see 56 FR 28112, June 19, 1991; 57 FR 2683, January 23, 1992;
and 58 FR 13561, March 12, 1993; current protections are codified at 50
CFR 672.24(e) and 675.24(f) (1994)). NMFS has also published a Steller
Sea Lion Recovery Plan (Recovery Plan) (58 FR 3008, January 7, 1993),
and has designated critical habitat for the species (58 FR 45269,
August 27, 1993). NMFS and other agencies are implementing the Recovery
Plan.
Since 1990, NMFS and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG)
have conducted monitoring surveys that indicate that the decline of
Steller sea
[[Page 51969]]
lions has continued throughout most of Alaska. Because of this
continued decline, on November 1, 1993, NMFS initiated a formal
population status review under the ESA to determine whether a change in
its listing status as a threatened species is warranted (58 FR 58318,
November 1, 1993).
II. Comments and Responses on Status Review Notice
NMFS received sixteen comments in response to the status review
notice. Comments pertinent to the proposed listings and regulations are
discussed below.
Separate Population Listings
Some comments noted that Steller sea lions have not declined in
some portions of the species' geographic range, and suggested that NMFS
consider treating the species as two separate populations for the
purposes of listing under the ESA.
Under the ESA, only a ``species'' may be listed as threatened or
endangered. The term ``species'' includes any subspecies of fish or
wildlife and any distinct population segment of any species of fish or
wildlife that interbreeds when mature. At the time Steller sea lions
were listed as threatened, NMFS determined that there was insufficient
information available to consider animals in different geographic
regions as separate populations. However, additional data collected,
particularly on population genetics, now indicate that Steller sea
lions should be listed as two distinct population segments under the
ESA. Supporting data and information for this proposed determination
are detailed below.
Listing Classification
The majority of the comments did not express a preference for
either a threatened or endangered listing status for Steller sea lions.
Some comments indicated the belief that there is sufficient information
to support a change in listing status to endangered. Other comments
stated that the current listing of the species as threatened provides
NMFS sufficient regulatory authority to protect Steller sea lions and,
therefore, a change in listing status to endangered is not necessary.
Some of these same commenters also suggested that an endangered listing
should not be considered at this time, since it would result in greater
economic effects to fishing communities and the fishing industry. Some
commenters believe that no change in listing status should be
considered while the reasons for the decline remain unclear.
The ESA is explicit that listing and reclassification decisions are
to be made solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the species' population status (section
4(b)(1)(A)). Economic effects are not to be considered in making a
listing determination for a species under the ESA. Likewise, the lack
of knowledge regarding causes of the Steller sea lion decline does not
affect a species' status. Each of the five factors described in section
4(a)(1) of the ESA that must be considered in making a listing status
determination are discussed below. The adequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms is one of these factors.
Population Viability Analysis
Some commenters expressed concern regarding the weight that would
be given to the results of the Steller sea lion Population Viability
Analysis (PVA) (PVA at Merrick and York, 1994). They noted the
difficulties in predicting future population trends with confidence
when causal relationships are not understood, and suggested that NMFS
use the PVA results with caution in the listing status determination.
One commenter indicated that the PVA should be peer reviewed by
independent experts.
The PVA provides an estimate of extinction risk if current
population trends continue. NMFS believes that the PVA provides the
best estimate of extinction risk possible with existing data and
scientific methods, and has submitted the PVA for review by outside,
independent experts. However, NMFS recognizes the limitations of
population modeling to accurately predict future trends for this
population. Thus, although the PVA results have been considered in the
status determination, these have not been given greater weight than
objective population trend data and the scientific opinion of experts,
both within and outside NMFS.
Protective Measures
Several commenters raised issues relative to the protective
measures that have been implemented to aid recovery of Steller sea
lions. Some commenters felt that additional regulations were needed to
better protect Steller sea lions from the effects of commercial
fisheries, and oil and gas exploration and development. Other
commenters questioned the rationale for existing protections,
particularly fishery closure areas.
NMFS has implemented various protective measures for Steller sea
lions under the ESA and the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and
Management Act (Magnuson Act). These measures are intended to reduce
intentional and unintentional mortality and harassment, disturbance of
breeding areas and reproduction, and the possible effects of commercial
fishing on the availability of Steller sea lion prey.
NMFS is reevaluating existing management measures for Steller sea
lions. NMFS expects to consider regulatory changes that may be needed
to ensure that regulations provide the greatest potential to benefit
Steller sea lions without unnecessarily restricting human activities.
However, NMFS will involve state and Federal agencies, the North
Pacific Fishery Management Council, Alaska Native organizations,
fishing and environmental groups, and other affected members of the
public in the early stages of the decision-making process for any
changes in management regulations. NMFS is reinitiating consultation
under section 7 of the ESA on Federally-managed groundfish fisheries
off Alaska to consider new information and to evaluate whether existing
protective regulations are adequate to ensure that agency actions are
not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species. NMFS
has not reached any definitive conclusions concerning the adequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms. This issue is discussed in more detail
below.
Research Program
Several commenters recommended an expansion of existing research
efforts, and offered specific recommendations for areas of research.
The Recovery Plan research program is a federally-funded effort,
implemented jointly by NMFS and ADFG. Research priorities are defined
in the Recovery Plan, and are limited by available funds. As described
below, the Recovery Team has begun the process of synthesizing research
program accomplishments with the intention of revising the Recovery
Plan, as needed.
III. Recommendations of the Steller Sea Lion Recovery Team
The Recovery Team was appointed by NMFS in 1990 to draft a recovery
plan for the species and to serve as an advisory body to NMFS on
Steller sea lion research and management issues. On November 29-30,
1994, NMFS convened the Recovery Team specifically to consider the
appropriate ESA listing status for the species and to evaluate the
adequacy of ongoing research and management programs. In the course of
that meeting, and in subsequent letters to the Assistant Administrator
for Fisheries, NOAA
[[Page 51970]]
(AA), the Recovery Team made the following recommendations to NMFS:
(1) Listing Status under the ESA: The Recovery Team recommended
that NMFS list the Steller sea lion as two separate population
segments, split to the east and west of 144 deg. W long. (a line near
Cape Suckling, AK). The Recovery Team recommended that the western
population segment be listed as endangered and that the eastern
population segment be listed as threatened.
(2) Commercial fisheries: A change in food availability is the
leading hypothesis for the cause of the Steller sea lion decline.
Reduced juvenile recruitment appears to be the proximate cause of the
decline and juvenile Steller sea lions appear to feed primarily in
areas near rookeries and haulouts. The Recovery Team recommended that
NMFS evaluate the need to close or otherwise regulate any or all
nearshore fisheries around Steller sea lion rookeries and major
haulouts west of 144 deg. W long. in order to enhance food
availability.
(3) Research: The Recovery Team recommended that the individual
research projects being undertaken under the Recovery Plan be peer
reviewed to assess the need for changes in research direction and
priorities. In-depth research program reviews will be accomplished over
the next few years and will include review by outside experts, as
necessary. The four major components of the research program to be
individually evaluated are: (1) Population monitoring (Peer review of
the population monitoring program was completed in 1992 (Rosenberg
1992)); (2) satellite telemetry studies; (3) physiology/health studies;
and (4) food habits and foraging ecology studies. Results of this peer
review process are expected to be used to revise the Recovery Plan.
The Recovery Team also recommended that NMFS direct additional
effort, and seek additional funding, to better assess Steller sea lion
prey resources in the North Pacific.
(4) Subsistence harvest: The Recovery Team recommended that NMFS
work with the newly formed Alaska Native Steller Sea Lion Commission
toward the goals of developing self-management and monitoring of
subsistence harvests, establishing biologically acceptable harvest
levels, and reducing struck and lost rates.
The Recovery Team recommendations relative to reclassification of
the species have been considered in this proposed determination.
Management recommendations also are being considered and will be
evaluated in more detail during the review of existing regulations and
through the consultation process.
IV. Proposed Population Determinations
As described above, only a ``species'' may be listed as threatened
or endangered under the ESA, and this term is defined to include any
subspecies of fish or wildlife and any distinct population segment of
any species of fish or wildlife that interbreeds when mature. On
December 21, 1994, NMFS and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed
a policy to clarify their interpretation of the phrase ``distinct
population segment'' for the purposes of listing, delisting, and
reclassifying species under the ESA (59 FR 65884, December 21, 1994).
Although this is only a proposed policy at this time, it represents the
best available guidance for interpreting the term ``distinct population
segment.'' NMFS proposes to use the criteria announced in the December
21, 1994 proposed policy to assess the presence of distinct populations
of Steller sea lions.
The proposed policy outlines three elements that should be
considered in any decision regarding the status of a possible distinct
population segment: Discreteness of the population segment in relation
to the remainder of the species to which it belongs; the significance
of the population segment to the species to which it belongs; and the
population segment's conservation status in relation to the ESA's
standards for listing. The first two elements are discussed below, and
conservation status is discussed separately for each proposed
population segment in the following section and within the context of
the five factors that are evaluated below.
(1) Discreteness: Under the proposed policy a population segment of
a vertebrate species may be considered discrete if it is either
markedly separated from other populations of the same taxon as a
consequence of physical, physiological, ecological, or behavioral
factors (quantitative measures of genetic or morphological
discontinuity may provide evidence); or delimited by international
governmental boundaries that are significant in light of section
4(a)(1)(D) of the ESA. The former criterion is particularly relevant
for Steller sea lions.
Genetic studies provide the strongest evidence that discrete
populations of Steller sea lions exist. Bickham et al. (in press)
collected genetic samples from 224 Steller sea lion pups on rookeries
in Russia, the Aleutian Islands, the western and central Gulf of
Alaska, southeastern Alaska, and Oregon. Mitochondrial DNA analyses of
these samples identified a total of 52 haplotypes (sets of alleles of
closely linked genes that tend to be inherited together, uniquely
identifying a chromosome) that could be further grouped together into
eight lineages. Bickham et al. found a distinct break in haplotype
distribution between the four western localities and the two eastern
localities. Cluster analysis indicated that the eight lineages could be
subdivided into two genetically differentiated populations, with the
division at about Prince William Sound. Ono (1993) conducted similar
analyses on samples obtained from 11 Steller sea lions on Ano Nuevo
Island, CA, and found seven haplotypes. Six of these were identical to
those identified from southeastern Alaska and Oregon by Bickham et al.,
and one was unique to Ano Nuevo Island.
Tagging and branding studies provide evidence that the breeding
behavior of Steller sea lions probably reduces opportunities for
genetic mixing among rookeries although Steller sea lions have been
documented to travel large distances during the non-breeding season.
The majority of females marked as pups, then later resighted as adults,
have returned to their rookery of birth to breed (Calkins and Pitcher,
1982; NMFS, 1995). The few resighted females observed breeding at
rookeries other than their natal site were all at rookeries near their
birth rookery. This apparent natal site fidelity not only reduces
genetic mixing among rookeries, but it also makes it less likely that
declining rookeries will be bolstered by recruitment from other
rookeries.
Satellite telemetry studies also provide evidence of ``homing''
behavior in Steller sea lions. Generally, tracked sea lions forage from
a central place (either a rookery or nearby haulout) and return to that
place at the end of a foraging trip that may vary in duration from
hours to months (Merrick et al., 1994).
Population trend data provide further evidence of separation among
these two population segments. The Steller sea lion population east of
Cape Suckling (with the exception of the portion in southern
California) has remained stable since the 1970s, whereas the population
to the west has declined dramatically. It is also worth noting that the
only break in the distribution of Steller sea lions along the Alaskan
coast occurs in the Yakutat area, near the proposed longitudinal border
that would delineate the western and eastern populations.
[[Page 51971]]
Loughlin (1994) used the phylogeographic approach proposed by Dizon
et al. (1992) to discern population discreteness in Steller sea lions.
Loughlin concluded, based on an evaluation of distribution, population
response, phenotypic, and genotypic data, that Steller sea lions should
be managed as two discrete populations, with the separation point at
about 144 deg. W. long.
The above information supports the conclusion that the western and
eastern population segments of Steller sea lions are discrete.
(2) Significance: The proposed policy recommends that if population
segments are determined to be discrete, then the biological and
ecological significance of a population segment should be considered in
light of the guidance in S. Rep. No. 151, 96th Cong., 1st Sess. (1979)
that the authority to list distinct population segments be used
sparingly and only when the biological evidence indicates that such
action is warranted. The underlying question of significance depends on
the relationship of a proposed population segment to the species as a
whole.
In the case of Steller sea lions, the two population segments under
consideration make up the entire range of the species. Extinction of
either population segment would represent a substantial loss to the
ecological and genetic diversity of the species as a whole.
The importance of each of the population segments indicates that
the significance criterion of the proposed policy would be satisfied.
V. Current Status
Status of the Western Steller Sea Lion Population Segment
Population monitoring data: The western Steller sea lion population
segment had suffered substantial declines prior to the 1990 ESA
listing. Loughlin et al. (1992) estimate a 70 percent decrease in the
number of adult and juvenile sea lions in this area between the 1960's
and 1989. Since the 1990 listing, Steller sea lion trend counts for the
western population segment have shown a continued decline. The number
of adult and juvenile animals counted at trend sites during aerial
surveys has dropped from 30,525 in 1990 to 24,104 in 1994 (a 21 percent
decrease) (NMFS, 1995).
Regionally, decline rates differ: The western and eastern Gulf of
Alaska (a 38 percent and a 36 percent decline, respectively) and the
central and western Aleutian Islands (a 28 percent and a 13 percent
decline, respectively) have shown the largest declines in adult/
juvenile numbers since 1990. Counts of the eastern Aleutian Islands
area and western Gulf of Alaska area have been relatively stable since
1990, while the Bering Sea region has shown an increase in adult/
juvenile counts since 1990. However, the eastern Aleutian Islands and
Bering Sea regions declined substantially prior to 1990, and
populations there remain only a fraction of what they were 20 years
ago.
Pup production has also decreased since the 1990 listing. Overall,
a decline of about 28 percent has been observed between pup counts made
in 1989-90 as compared to 1993-94 (excluding the western Aleutian
Islands and Bering Sea where comparative counts are not available).
Regional differences in the rate of change in pup production also are
apparent. Pup production in the central Gulf of Alaska declined by 49
percent between 1989-90 and 1993-94. The central and eastern Aleutian
Islands also had large decreases in pup production (a 19 percent and a
16 percent decline, respectively), while pup production in the eastern
and western Gulf of Alaska was relatively stable over the time period.
Population Viability Analysis: Steller sea lion abundance trends
within the decline area were modeled to provide an estimate of the
likelihood of extinction given the available population data (Merrick
and York, 1994). Two models were developed based on a stochastic model
of exponential growth that required only count data and count variance
to predict future trends (after Dennis et al., 1991), and using both
the 1985-94 and 1989-94 population trends. One model (an aggregate
Kenai-Kiska Island (trend sites) model) was based on the trajectory of
the sum of the rookery populations within the area. The second model
was based on a simulation of the population trajectories of individual
rookeries in the Kenai-Kiska area.
Both models predicted that the Kenai-Kiska population would be
reduced to low levels (<500 females)="" within="" 100="" years="" from="" the="" present,="" if="" either="" the="" 1985-94="" or="" 1989-94="" trend="" continues="" into="" the="" future.="" the="" kenai-kiska="" regional="" model="" predicted="" a="" probability="" of="" extinction="" within="" 100="" years="" of="" 100="" percent="" from="" the="" 1985-94="" trend="" data,="" and="" a="" probability="" of="" extinction="" within="" 100="" years="" of="" 65="" percent="" if="" the="" 1989-94="" trend="" data="" are="" used.="" the="" rookery="" model="" predicted="" longer="" times="" to="" extinction.="" predicted="" probabilities="" of="" extinction="" within="" 100="" years="" were="" 100="" percent="" using="" the="" 1985-94="" trend,="" and="" 10="" percent="" using="" the="" 1989-94="" trend="" data.="" modeling="" results="" indicated="" that,="" if="" either="" trend="" persists,="" the="" next="" 20="" years="" would="" be="" crucial="" to="" the="" survival="" of="" the="" western="" alaska="" population.="" under="" all="" modelling="" scenarios="" during="" the="" next="" 20="" years,="" populations="" on="" individual="" rookeries="" are="" predicted="" to="" be="" reduced="" to="" low="" levels="" (mean="" size=""><100 adult="" females).="" criteria="" and="" considerations="" for="" endangered="" classification:="" the="" esa="" does="" not="" provide="" objective="" criteria="" or="" specific="" guidance="" for="" determining="" when="" a="" population="" should="" be="" listed="" as="" endangered="" or="" threatened.="" the="" esa="" simply="" defines="" an="" ``endangered="" species''="" as="" one="" that="" is="" in="" danger="" of="" extinction="" and="" a="" ``threatened="" species''="" as="" a="" species="" that="" is="" likely="" to="" become="" an="" endangered="" species="" within="" the="" foreseeable="" future.="" other="" guidance="" and="" criteria="" for="" assessing="" population="" endangerment="" can="" be="" gleaned="" from="" scientific="" literature.="" this="" is="" discussed="" below="" in="" relation="" to="" the="" current="" status="" of="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" the="" recovery="" team="" recommended="" specific="" evaluation="" criteria="" for="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" and="" considered="" the="" current="" abundance="" in="" the="" kenai="" peninsula="" to="" kiska="" island="" (trendsite)="" area="" in="" relation="" to="" a="" pre-decline="" benchmark="" population="" size,="" as="" well="" as="" the="" rate="" of="" decline="" in="" adult/="" juvenile="" animals="" counted="" within="" the="" trendsite="" area,="" the="" rate="" of="" decline="" in="" pup="" production="" in="" the="" trendsite="" area,="" and="" population="" trends="" in="" other="" geographic="" regions="" (nmfs,="" 1992).="" application="" of="" the="" recovery="" team's="" criteria="" at="" this="" time="" would="" result="" in="" a="" determination="" that="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" should="" be="" listed="" as="" endangered.="" indeed,="" the="" recovery="" team="" specifically="" recommended="" to="" nmfs="" that="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" be="" listed="" as="" endangered="" (lowry,="" 1994).="" although="" a="" precise="" definition="" of="" ``endangered''="" does="" not="" exist,="" a="" population="" that="" is="" not="" endangered="" is="" one="" that="" is="" likely="" to="" persist="" into="" the="" foreseeable="" future.="" thus,="" the="" question="" of="" defining="" endangerment="" is="" one="" of="" determining="" the="" threshold="" probability="" of="" extinction="" that="" is="" too="" high="" to="" be="" acceptable="" to="" society="" (goodman,="" 1994).="" defining="" the="" acceptable="" probability="" of="" persistence="" and="" the="" appropriate="" time="" frame="" of="" reference="" that="" defines="" a="" minimum="" viable="" population="" (mvp)="" is="" a="" subjective="" decision="" that="" has="" been="" much="" discussed="" in="" the="" conservation="" biology="" literature.="" ``acceptable''="" persistence="" values="" in="" the="" scientific="" literature="" for="" an="" mvp="" range="" from="" a="" ``greater="" than''="" 80="" to="" 90="" percent="" probability="" of="" persistence="" over="" 10="" generations,="" to="" a="" ``greater="" than="" or="" equal="" to''="" 50,="" 90,="" 95,="" and="" 99="" percent="" probability="" of="" persistence="" over="" 100="" years="" or="" a="" ``greater="" than="" or="" equal="" to''="" 99="" percent="" likelihood="" of="" persistence="" over="" [[page="" 51972]]="" 1000="" years="" (schaffer,="" 1981,="" 1987;="" belovsky,="" 1987;="" soule,="" 1987;="" mace="" and="" lande,="" 1991;="" mace="" et="" al.,="" 1993;="" thompson,="" 1991).="" thompson="" (1991)="" notes="" that="" although="" there="" are="" no="" clear="" theoretical="" grounds="" for="" a="" single="" choice="" of="" persistence="" probability="" and="" time="" frame="" reference,="" the="" relatively="" frequent="" use="" of="" a="" 95="" percent="" probability="" of="" persistence="" over="" 100="" years="" makes="" this="" a="" reasonable="" standard="" for="" an="" mvp,="" i.e.,="" an="" unendangered="" population.="" considering="" the="" converse,="" an="" endangered="" population="" may="" be="" defined="" as="" one="" with="" a="" greater="" than="" 5="" percent="" chance="" of="" extinction="" over="" the="" next="" 100="" years.="" evaluating="" the="" western="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population="" pva="" results="" (at="" merrick="" and="" york,="" 1994)="" in="" light="" of="" this="" ``standard''="" would="" lead="" to="" a="" determination="" that="" the="" western="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" is="" endangered.="" various="" ``rules="" of="" thumb''="" also="" have="" been="" proposed="" for="" the="" minimum="" population="" size="" needed="" to="" ``ensure''="" population="" persistence="" over="" time;="" however,="" most="" authors="" caution="" against="" using="" such="" ``magic="" numbers''="" offhandedly.="" for="" example,="" the="" 1994="" estimate="" of="" adult/juvenile="" steller="" sea="" lions="" within="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" of="" 33,600="" (nmfs,="" 1995)="" is="" well="" above="" most="" of="" the="" mvp="" ``rules="" of="" thumb''="" commonly="" cited="" (soule,="" 1987;="" belovsky,="" 1987;="" thomas,="" 1990).="" a="" ``rule="" of="" thumb''="" approach="" is="" inadequate,="" however,="" for="" evaluating="" the="" status="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" under="" the="" esa.="" a="" ``rule="" of="" thumb''="" assessment="" may="" be="" useful="" in="" assessing="" long-term="" viability="" of="" stable="" populations,="" but="" the="" severe,="" continuous="" decline="" in="" the="" western="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population="" trend="" would="" be="" overlooked="" by="" such="" an="" approach.="" as="" noted="" by="" the="" recovery="" team="" in="" their="" criteria,="" the="" rate="" of="" population="" decline,="" as="" well="" as="" the="" magnitude="" and="" spatial="" extent="" of="" the="" decline,="" are="" critical="" factors="" in="" determining="" endangerment="" for="" this="" population.="" mace="" and="" lande="" (1991)="" and="" mace="" et="" al.="" (1993)="" outline="" criteria="" for="" classifying="" species="" considered="" by="" the="" international="" union="" for="" the="" conservation="" of="" nature="" (iucn),="" which="" incorporate="" various="" types="" of="" population="" data="" and="" analyses,="" e.g.,="" population="" size,="" geographic="" range,="" population="" decline="" rate,="" probability="" of="" persistence="" within="" a="" given="" time="" frame="" from="" pva.="" consideration="" of="" all="" available="" data="" on="" a="" population="" allows="" a="" more="" robust="" estimate="" of="" population="" status="" than="" ``rule="" of="" thumb''="" or="" pva="" approaches="" alone.="" it="" should="" be="" emphasized="" that="" in="" both="" iucn="" proposals="" probabilistic="" criteria="" are="" considered="" in="" conjunction="" with="" other="" data,="" thus,="" the="" most="" conservative="" classification="" derived="" by="" considering="" all="" available="" data/analyses="" would="" be="" chosen.="" conclusions="" concerning="" the="" western="" population:="" an="" analysis="" of="" the="" conservation="" status="" of="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" of="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" in="" relationship="" to="" the="" standards="" for="" threatened="" and="" endangered="" status="" indicates="" that="" this="" population="" segment="" would="" satisfy="" the="" third="" criterion="" of="" the="" proposed="" population="" policy.="" in="" addition,="" the="" available="" data="" and="" information="" concerning="" the="" status="" of="" this="" stock="" indicates="" that="" the="" western="" population="" should="" be="" proposed="" for="" endangered="" status="" under="" the="" esa.="" the="" western="" population="" is="" proposed="" to="" consist="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" breeding="" colonies="" located="" west="" of="" 144="" deg.w.="" long.="" status="" of="" the="" eastern="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population="" segment="" population="" monitoring="" data:="" the="" 1990="" esa="" listing="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" resulted="" primarily="" from="" the="" declines="" observed="" in="" the="" western="" population="" area;="" in="" the="" eastern="" population,="" a="" decline="" has="" been="" noted="" only="" in="" the="" california="" part="" of="" the="" range.="" since="" the="" 1990="" listing,="" trend="" counts="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" show="" about="" a="" 17="" percent="" increase="" overall="" in="" adult/juvenile="" numbers.="" similar="" to="" the="" western="" population,="" regional="" differences="" in="" trends="" within="" the="" eastern="" population="" are="" evident.="" california="" experienced="" a="" large="" decline="" in="" steller="" sea="" lion="" numbers="" prior="" to="" 1980;="" nmfs="" (1995)="" estimated="" a="" greater="" than="" 50="" percent="" decline="" between="" about="" 1950="" and="" 1980.="" some="" of="" the="" available="" data="" indicate="" that="" a="" northward="" shift="" in="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" range="" may="" be="" occurring,="" which="" may="" exacerbate="" the="" decline="" at="" southern="" rookeries.="" steller="" sea="" lion="" counts="" in="" california="" have="" been="" relatively="" stable="" since="" 1980="" (1980="" count="" was="" 982)="" although="" counts="" declined="" 19="" percent="" from="" 1990-94="" (from="" 1,123="" animals="" to="" 915)="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" the="" reasons="" for="" the="" historical="" decline="" in="" steller="" sea="" lion="" total="" abundance="" and="" the="" current="" decline="" at="" southern="" locations="" in="" california="" is="" not="" known.="" causal="" factors="" under="" investigation="" include="" changes="" in="" prey="" base,="" possible="" effects="" of="" anthropogenic="" contaminants="" and="" disease,="" disturbance,="" and="" competition="" with="" other="" pinniped="" populations="" that="" are="" increasing="" in="" abundance="" in="" california,="" e.g.,="" california="" sea="" lions,="" elephant="" seals,="" northern="" fur="" seals.="" steller="" sea="" lion="" adult/juvenile="" counts="" at="" oregon="" trend="" sites="" show="" a="" relatively="" large="" increase="" from="" 1990-94="" (from="" 2,005="" to="" 2,696)="" but="" this="" may="" be,="" at="" least="" partially,="" due="" to="" improved="" counting="" techniques="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" steller="" sea="" lion="" adult/juvenile="" counts="" in="" southeast="" alaska="" increased="" 15="" percent="" from="" 1990="" to="" 1994="" (from="" 7,629="" to="" 9,005),="" and="" pup="" counts="" increased="" by="" about="" 10="" percent="" (from="" a="" mean="" of="" 2,568="" in="" 1989-90="" to="" a="" mean="" of="" 3,701="" in="" 1993-94).="" the="" british="" columbia="" portion="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" has="" also="" apparently="" been="" increasing="" slowly="" since="" the="" 1970s.="" reports="" from="" aerial="" surveys="" conducted="" by="" the="" canadian="" department="" of="" fisheries="" and="" oceans="" indicate="" that="" adult/juvenile="" counts="" at="" rookeries="" and="" haulouts="" in="" british="" columbia="" increased="" about="" 10="" percent="" between="" 1992="" and="" 1994="" (from="" 7,376="" to="" 8,091)="" (olesiuk,="" pers.="" comm.).="" criteria="" and="" considerations="" for="" threatened="" status="" and="" conclusions="" concerning="" the="" eastern="" population:="" the="" overall="" trend="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" since="" 1980="" has="" been="" stable="" to="" increasing="" although="" significant="" declines="" in="" the="" number="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" occurring="" within="" california="" prior="" to="" 1980="" have="" been="" documented.="" population="" modeling="" of="" the="" number="" of="" sea="" lions="" at="" the="" rookeries="" to="" assess="" the="" viability="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" has="" not="" been="" specifically="" conducted="" by="" nmfs.="" since="" this="" population's="" trend="" has="" been="" stable="" to="" increasing,="" modelling,="" such="" as="" that="" conducted="" for="" the="" western="" population,="" would="" be="" expected="" to="" predict="" persistence="" of="" this="" population="" segment="" for="" the="" foreseeable="" future="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" the="" estimated="" size="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" within="" u.s.="" boundaries="" in="" 1994="" was="" 18,600="" animals.="" about="" 10,000="" more="" animals="" of="" this="" population="" are="" estimated="" to="" occur="" within="" british="" columbia.="" the="" british="" columbia="" estimate="" was="" derived="" by="" adjusting="" olesiuk's="" 1994="" adult/juvenile="" count="" to="" account="" for="" animals="" at="" sea,="" using="" the="" methods="" of="" loughlin="" et="" al.="" (1992).="" comparison="" of="" this="" population="" size="" with="" the="" typical="" range="" of="" most="" ``rules="" of="" thumb''="" for="" minimum="" viable="" population="" size="" (from="" 1000="" to="" 10,000="" individuals="" (thompson,="" 1991))="" provides="" an="" additional="" indication="" that="" this="" population="" is="" not="" vulnerable="" to="" extinction="" in="" the="" foreseeable="" future.="" similarly,="" this="" population="" segment,="" when="" considered="" alone,="" would="" not="" meet="" any="" of="" the="" draft="" iucn="" vulnerability="" criteria="" discussed="" in="" mace="" and="" lande="" (1991)="" and="" mace="" et="" al.="" (1993).="" evaluating="" the="" population="" status="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" without="" a="" consideration="" of="" its="" place="" in="" the="" overall="" species="" population,="" however,="" may="" be="" inappropriate.="" prior="" to="" the="" decline,="" the="" proportion="" of="" the="" u.s.="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" that="" resided="" within="" the="" eastern="" population="" [[page="" 51973]]="" area="" was="" less="" than="" 10="" percent="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" because="" of="" the="" western="" population's="" decline,="" the="" eastern="" population's="" numerical="" significance="" has="" increased.="" nmfs="" (1995)="" estimates="" that="" the="" total="" u.s.="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" has="" declined="" by="" 73="" percent="" between="" the="" 1960s="" and="" 1994="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" the="" overall="" trend="" for="" the="" entire="" species="" is="" a="" continuing="" decline.="" also,="" between="" 1991="" and="" 1994="" pup="" numbers="" decreased="" in="" all="" regions="" of="" alaska.="" there="" was="" a="" 20.8="" percent="" decrease="" in="" the="" number="" of="" pups="" born="" in="" the="" area="" from="" southeastern="" alaska="" to="" central="" alaska.="" these="" declines="" reverse="" the="" apparent="" stability="" in="" pup="" numbers="" in="" southeastern="" alaska.="" thus,="" although="" for="" listing="" purposes="" the="" western="" and="" eastern="" population="" segments="" may="" be="" considered="" discrete,="" the="" substantial="" population="" decline="" that="" has="" occurred="" in="" the="" eastern="" gulf="" of="" alaska="" through="" the="" aleutian="" islands="" represents="" a="" threat="" to="" the="" continued="" existence="" of="" the="" entire="" species,="" including="" the="" eastern="" population.="" therefore,="" the="" vulnerability="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" remains="" a="" serious="" concern="" as="" long="" as="" the="" cause="" of="" the="" decline="" of="" the="" western="" population="" remains="" undetermined.="" these="" populations,="" while="" separate,="" are="" not="" isolated,="" and="" factors="" causing="" the="" decline="" in="" alaska="" could="" move="" eastward="" and="" pose="" a="" threat="" to="" the="" continued="" existence="" of="" the="" eastern="" population.="" the="" recent="" declines="" in="" pup="" production="" in="" the="" eastern="" population="" are="" of="" serious="" concern.="" in="" addition,="" the="" decline="" numbers="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" in="" california,="" in="" the="" southern="" extremity="" of="" their="" range,="" is="" also="" of="" concern.="" the="" recovery="" team's="" population="" evaluation="" criteria="" focused="" on="" population="" parameters="" within="" the="" western="" population="" segment,="" and="" thus,="" offer="" no="" guidance="" for="" evaluating="" the="" status="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment.="" recently,="" the="" recovery="" team="" recommended="" that="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" remain="" listed="" as="" threatened="" because="" of="" concerns="" regarding="" (1)="" the="" decline="" in="" steller="" sea="" lions="" numbers="" in="" southern="" california,="" (2)="" the="" potential="" that="" the="" decline="" in="" the="" western="" population="" could="" spread="" east,="" (3)="" a="" slight="" decrease="" in="" pup="" counts="" in="" southeast="" alaska="" and="" oregon="" in="" 1994,="" and="" (4)="" a="" concern="" that="" since="" animals="" in="" the="" western="" population="" may="" occur="" within="" the="" eastern="" population's="" geographic="" range,="" animals="" from="" the="" western="" population="" could="" be="" affected="" by="" a="" lack="" of="" protective="" management="" mechanisms="" (lowry,="" 1994).="" an="" analysis="" of="" the="" conservation="" status="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" of="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" in="" relationship="" to="" the="" standards="" for="" threatened="" status="" indicates="" that="" this="" population="" remains="" vulnerable,="" but="" in="" a="" manner="" and="" to="" an="" extent="" that="" differs="" from="" the="" vulnerability="" of="" the="" western="" population="" segment.="" this="" analysis="" indicates="" that="" the="" third="" criterion="" of="" the="" proposed="" population="" policy="" is="" satisfied.="" likewise,="" the="" available="" data="" and="" information="" concerning="" the="" status="" of="" this="" stock="" indicates="" that="" the="" eastern="" population="" should="" continue="" to="" be="" considered="" threatened.="" nmfs="" proposes="" a="" separate="" listing="" for="" the="" eastern="" population="" of="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" as="" a="" threatened="" species="" under="" the="" esa.="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" would="" consist="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" breeding="" colonies="" located="" east="" of="" 144="" deg.w.="" long.="" listing="" procedures:="" summary="" of="" factors="" affecting="" the="" species="" species="" may="" be="" determined="" to="" be="" endangered="" or="" threatened="" due="" to="" one="" or="" more="" of="" five="" factors="" described="" in="" section="" 4(a)(1)="" of="" the="" esa.="" these="" factors="" as="" they="" apply="" to="" the="" western="" and="" eastern="" steller="" sea="" lions="" population="" segments="" are="" discussed="" below.="" a.="" the="" present="" or="" threatened="" destruction,="" modification,="" or="" curtailment="" of="" its="" habitat="" or="" range="" western="" population="" segment:="" steller="" sea="" lions="" breed,="" pup,="" and="" seek="" rest="" and="" refuge="" on="" relatively="" remote="" islands="" and="" points="" of="" land="" along="" the="" alaska="" coastline.="" there="" is="" no="" evidence="" that="" the="" availability="" of="" rookery="" or="" haulout="" space="" is="" a="" limiting="" factor="" for="" this="" species.="" as="" the="" number="" of="" animals="" in="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" continues="" to="" decline,="" some="" rookeries="" and="" haulouts="" have="" been="" abandoned="" and="" the="" availability="" of="" suitable="" terrestrial="" habitat="" is="" increasing.="" terrestrial="" habitat="" destruction="" and="" modification="" do="" not="" appear="" to="" be="" significant="" issues="" for="" this="" population="" segment,="" or="" have="" a="" significant="" role="" in="" its="" population="" decline.="" there="" are="" indications="" that="" steller="" sea="" lion="" declines="" may="" be="" related="" to="" changes="" in="" the="" availability="" or="" quality="" of="" sea="" lion="" prey,="" as="" a="" result="" of="" environmental="" changes="" or="" human="" activities="" (alverson,="" 1991;="" calkins="" and="" goodwin,="" 1988;="" loughlin="" and="" merrick,="" 1991;="" merrick="" et="" al.,="" 1987;="" nmfs,="" 1992;="" nmfs,="" 1995).="" this="" issue="" is="" discussed="" in="" more="" detail="" below="" in="" the="" section="" analyzing="" other="" factors="" affecting="" the="" species.="" eastern="" population="" segment:="" modification="" or="" destruction="" of="" habitat,="" including="" both="" terrestrial="" and="" aquatic="" habitat,="" does="" not="" appear="" to="" be="" a="" significant="" factor="" affecting="" steller="" sea="" lions="" in="" southeast="" alaska.="" in="" oregon,="" human="" disturbance="" of="" sea="" lions="" at="" three="" arch="" rock="" and="" orford="" reef="" was="" found="" to="" have="" a="" significant="" effect="" on="" the="" number="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" using="" these="" sites="" (r.="" brown,="" pers.="" comm.;="" nmfs,="" 1992).="" state="" regulations="" have="" been="" implemented,="" however,="" to="" restrict="" vessel="" traffic="" and="" reduce="" human="" disturbance.="" in="" california,="" the="" reason="" for="" the="" decline="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" is="" not="" known.="" former="" rookery="" habitat="" has="" been="" abandoned="" (san="" miguel="" island),="" and="" some="" other="" rookeries="" (ano="" nuevo="" island,="" farallon="" islands)="" are="" at="" lower="" than="" historical="" abundance="" levels.="" the="" availability="" of="" suitable="" terrestrial="" habitat="" does="" not="" appear="" to="" be="" a="" factor="" in="" the="" sea="" lion="" decline="" in="" parts="" of="" california.="" a="" redistribution="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" disturbed="" to="" undisturbed="" habitats,="" however,="" has="" been="" reported="" in="" the="" farallon="" islands="" (d.="" ainley="" in="" nmfs,="" 1992),="" which="" may="" be="" indicative="" of="" unreported="" disturbance="" limiting="" habitat="" use="" in="" other="" areas.="" similarly,="" with="" respect="" to="" aquatic="" habitat,="" changes="" in="" the="" availability="" and="" quality="" of="" steller="" sea="" lion="" prey="" resources="" due="" to="" natural="" cycles,="" fisheries,="" and="" toxic="" substances="" may="" be="" a="" factor="" in="" observed="" population="" trends="" in="" california.="" b.="" overutilization="" for="" commercial,="" recreational,="" scientific,="" or="" educational="" purposes="" western="" and="" eastern="" population="" segments:="" steller="" sea="" lion="" pups="" were="" harvested="" commercially="" in="" the="" past,="" with="" significant="" levels="" of="" harvest="" occurring="" in="" eastern="" aleutian="" islands="" and="" the="" gulf="" of="" alaska="" during="" the="" 1960's="" and="" early="" 70's.="" commercial="" harvest="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" has="" not="" occurred="" since="" 1972.="" in="" the="" past="" there="" have="" been="" reports="" of="" people="" shooting="" at="" steller="" sea="" lions="" at="" rookeries="" and="" haulout="" sites="" and="" in="" the="" water="" near="" boats.="" although="" illegal,="" shooting="" of="" sea="" lions="" probably="" continues,="" but="" the="" magnitude="" and="" significance="" of="" this="" mortality="" source="" is="" not="" known.="" in="" addition,="" in="" some="" cases,="" the="" animals="" may="" be="" disturbed="" as="" a="" result="" of="" recreational="" activities.="" while="" the="" commercial="" harvest="" and="" illegal="" shooting="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" may="" have="" been="" significant="" factors="" in="" past="" declines,="" especially="" with="" respect="" to="" the="" western="" population,="" these="" harvests="" probably="" are="" not="" a="" major="" or="" substantial="" cause="" of="" recent="" population="" changes.="" intentional="" lethal="" takings="" of="" small="" numbers="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" for="" scientific="" purposes="" have="" occurred="" in="" the="" past.="" since="" the="" 1990="" esa="" listing,="" however,="" scientists="" have="" relied="" on="" non-lethal="" sampling="" techniques.="" research="" often="" results="" in="" the="" temporary="" harassment="" and="" occasionally="" results="" in="" the="" injury="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" prior="" to="" 1990,="" a="" small="" number="" of="" animals="" were="" taken="" from="" the="" wild="" for="" public="" display="" [[page="" 51974]]="" purposes,="" but="" no="" such="" removals="" have="" been="" authorized="" since="" listing.="" while="" occasionally="" the="" subject="" of="" observation="" and="" harassment,="" especially="" in="" some="" areas,="" steller="" sea="" lions="" usually="" are="" not="" utilized="" for="" educational="" purposes="" in="" a="" manner="" that="" would="" have="" a="" significant="" negative="" impact="" on="" the="" animals.="" it="" is="" unlikely="" that="" utilization="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" for="" scientific="" or="" educational="" purposes="" has="" been="" a="" significant="" or="" contributing="" factor="" that="" has="" affected="" either="" population="" segment.="" c.="" disease="" or="" predation="" western="" and="" eastern="" population="" segments:="" sharks="" and="" killer="" whales="" are="" known="" to="" prey="" on="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" primarily="" pups.="" the="" magnitude="" and="" significance="" of="" predator-related="" mortality,="" however,="" is="" not="" known.="" natural="" mortality="" from="" predation="" is="" not="" currently="" considered="" to="" be="" a="" significant="" factor="" for="" either="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population="" segment.="" nonetheless,="" should="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" continue="" to="" decline="" and="" the="" amount="" of="" mortality="" resulting="" from="" natural="" predation="" by="" killer="" whales="" remain="" unchanged,="" natural="" mortality="" could="" exacerbate="" the="" decline,="" especially="" in="" some="" areas="" of="" the="" western="" population.="" studies="" to="" assess="" the="" significance="" of="" disease="" in="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population="" are="" ongoing.="" to="" date,="" researchers="" have="" not="" found="" any="" evidence="" that="" disease="" is="" a="" significant="" factor="" affecting="" either="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" various="" pathogens="" have="" been="" isolated="" from="" animals="" collected="" by="" researchers="" or="" carcasses="" found="" on="" the="" beach="" but="" their="" significance="" to="" the="" overall="" population="" remains="" unclear.="" one="" area="" of="" ongoing="" research="" is="" determining="" the="" role,="" if="" any,="" of="" pathogens="" in="" the="" relatively="" high="" rate="" of="" abortions="" observed="" in="" gulf="" of="" alaska="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" d.="" the="" inadequacy="" of="" existing="" regulatory="" mechanisms="" nmfs="" has="" the="" authority="" to="" implement="" regulations="" necessary="" to="" protect="" steller="" sea="" lions="" under="" the="" esa="" and="" the="" mmpa.="" similarly,="" under="" the="" magnuson="" act,="" nmfs="" has="" the="" authority="" to="" regulate="" fishing="" activities="" that="" may="" be="" affecting="" sea="" lions,="" directly="" or="" indirectly.="" however,="" the="" adequacy="" or="" inadequacy="" of="" existing="" regulatory="" mechanisms="" and="" protective="" regulations="" is="" difficult="" to="" evaluate="" because="" of="" the="" lack="" of="" a="" clear="" cause="" and="" effect="" relationship="" between="" human="" activities="" and="" the="" decline="" in="" the="" western="" population="" segment.="" various="" regulations="" that="" have="" been="" implemented,="" or="" that="" have="" been="" suggested="" or="" proposed="" for="" implementation,="" are="" considered="" below.="" take="" prohibitions.="" under="" the="" mmpa,="" it="" is="" unlawful="" for="" any="" person="" subject="" to="" the="" jurisdiction="" of="" the="" united="" states="" to="" take="" a="" marine="" mammal="" on="" the="" high="" seas="" or="" in="" waters="" or="" lands="" under="" u.s.="" jurisdiction.="" ``take''="" is="" defined="" as="" harass,="" hunt,="" capture,="" or="" kill="" or="" attempt="" to="" harass,="" hunt,="" capture,="" or="" kill="" any="" marine="" mammal.="" certain="" exceptions="" are="" provided.="" similarly,="" under="" the="" esa,="" certain="" statutory="" prohibitions="" apply="" once="" a="" species="" is="" listed="" as="" endangered.="" for="" example,="" under="" section="" 9="" of="" the="" esa,="" no="" person="" subject="" to="" the="" jurisdiction="" of="" the="" united="" states="" may="" take="" such="" a="" species="" within="" the="" u.s.,="" the="" territorial="" sea="" of="" the="" u.s.,="" or="" upon="" the="" high="" seas.="" ``take''="" is="" defined="" as="" harass,="" harm,="" hunt,="" shoot,="" wound,="" kill,="" trap,="" capture,="" or="" collect,="" or="" to="" attempt="" to="" engage="" in="" such="" conduct.="" certain="" exceptions="" are="" provided.="" often="" prohibitions="" similar="" to="" the="" section="" 9="" prohibitions="" for="" endangered="" species="" are="" implemented="" by="" regulation="" with="" respect="" to="" species="" that="" are="" listed="" as="" threatened.="" such="" action="" was="" not="" taken="" with="" respect="" to="" steller="" sea="" lions="" when="" the="" species="" originally="" was="" listed="" as="" threatened="" in="" 1990,="" in="" part,="" because="" similar="" take="" prohibitions="" existed="" under="" the="" mmpa,="" and="" in="" part,="" because="" of="" the="" difficulty="" of="" authorizing="" incidental="" takings="" if="" such="" prohibitions="" had="" been="" implemented.="" the="" regulatory="" mechanisms="" prohibiting="" the="" taking="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" generally="" have="" been="" effective.="" regulations="" prohibiting="" the="" discharge="" of="" firearms:="" regulations="" adopted="" with="" the="" original="" listing="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" as="" threatened="" prohibited="" the="" discharge="" of="" firearms="" at="" or="" near="" these="" animals.="" although="" intentional="" lethal="" taking="" of="" sea="" lions="" was="" prohibited="" at="" that="" time,="" there="" had="" been="" reports="" that="" firearms="" were="" used="" to="" deter="" sea="" lions="" from="" interfering="" with="" fishing="" operations.="" in="" a="" separate="" action,="" nmfs="" has="" proposed="" regulations="" and="" guidelines="" for="" deterring="" marine="" mammals="" as="" required="" under="" new="" section="" 101(a)(4)="" of="" the="" mmpa="" (60="" fr="" 22345,="" may="" 5,="" 1995).="" these="" deterrence="" measures="" would="" prohibit="" the="" use="" of="" firearms="" for="" deterring="" marine="" mammals="" from="" interacting="" with="" fishing="" gear="" or="" catch.="" in="" addition,="" new="" section="" 118(a)(5)="" of="" the="" mmpa="" prohibits="" intentional="" lethal="" taking="" of="" any="" marine="" mammal="" during="" commercial="" fishing="" operations,="" except="" in="" defense="" of="" human="" life="" (60="" fr="" 6036,="" feb.="" 1,="" 1995).="" as="" noted="" above,="" illegal="" shooting="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" may="" be="" continuing,="" but="" the="" regulations="" adopted="" at="" the="" time="" of="" the="" original="" listing="" of="" the="" species="" as="" threatened="" are="" viewed,="" in="" general,="" as="" effective="" and="" adequate.="" nmfs="" proposes="" to="" continue="" these="" types="" of="" protections="" for="" both="" the="" eastern="" and="" western="" population="" segments.="" the="" proposed="" regulation="" in="" this="" action="" would="" expand="" the="" definition="" of="" ``firearm''="" to="" make="" the="" definition="" consistent="" with="" the="" approach="" proposed="" in="" the="" marine="" mammal="" deterrence="" measures.="" no="" approach="" in="" buffer="" areas:="" regulations="" adopted="" with="" the="" original="" listing="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" as="" threatened,="" prohibited="" any="" vessel="" from="" approaching="" within="" three="" miles="" of="" specific="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookeries;="" likewise,="" approach="" on="" non-private="" land="" within="" one-half="" mile="" of="" these="" specific="" rookery="" sites="" was="" prohibited.="" a="" variety="" of="" exceptions="" were="" provided.="" all="" of="" the="" specified="" rookery="" sites="" are="" within="" the="" range="" of="" the="" western="" population="" segment.="" the="" purposes="" of="" the="" buffer="" areas="" were="" to="" restrict="" opportunities="" for="" individuals="" to="" shoot="" at="" sea="" lions="" and="" to="" facilitate="" enforcement="" of="" this="" restriction;="" to="" reduce="" interactions="" with="" sea="" lions,="" such="" as="" accidents="" or="" incidental="" takings,="" in="" areas="" where="" concentrations="" of="" these="" animals="" are="" expected="" to="" be="" high;="" to="" minimize="" disturbance="" and="" interference="" with="" sea="" lion="" behavior="" including="" foraging="" behavior,="" especially="" at="" pupping="" and="" breeding="" sites;="" and="" to="" avoid="" or="" minimize="" other="" human="" impacts="" and="" related="" adverse="" effects.="" to="" date,="" these="" regulations="" generally="" are="" viewed="" as="" effective.="" nmfs="" is="" proposing="" to="" continue="" the="" existing="" regulatory="" buffer="" areas="" in="" the="" western="" area.="" at="" this="" time,="" nmfs="" is="" not="" proposing="" additional="" buffer="" areas="" in="" the="" western="" area="" or="" any="" buffer="" area="" protections="" for="" rookery="" sites="" in="" the="" eastern="" area.="" specific="" case-by-case="" buffer="" area="" or="" related="" protections="" may="" be="" considered="" in="" the="" context="" of="" section="" 7="" consultations.="" comments="" are="" invited="" with="" respect="" to="" the="" need="" for="" changes="" in="" buffer="" area="" protections.="" quotas="" on="" incidental="" takings:="" on="" april="" 30,="" 1994,="" the="" reauthorized="" and="" amended="" mmpa="" established="" a="" new="" regime="" to="" govern="" the="" take="" of="" marine="" mammals="" incidental="" to="" commercial="" fishing="" operations="" to="" replace="" the="" interim="" exemption="" program="" that="" was="" established="" by="" the="" 1988="" amendments="" to="" the="" mmpa.="" under="" the="" 1988="" interim="" marine="" mammal="" exemption="" program,="" up="" to="" 1,350="" steller="" sea="" lions="" were="" authorized="" to="" be="" taken="" annually="" incidental="" to="" commercial="" fisheries="" and="" emergency="" regulatory="" actions="" were="" required="" if="" more="" than="" 1,350="" animals="" were="" incidentally="" killed="" in="" any="" year.="" the="" new="" mmpa="" management="" regime="" replaces="" the="" previous="" quota="" system="" and="" focuses="" on="" reducing="" the="" incidental="" mortality="" and="" serious="" injury="" of="" marine="" mammals="" from="" strategic="" stocks,="" i.e.,="" those="" that="" are="" listed="" as="" endangered="" or="" threatened="" under="" the="" [[page="" 51975]]="" esa,="" those="" that="" are="" listed="" as="" depleted="" under="" the="" mmpa,="" and="" those="" for="" which="" human-caused="" mortality="" exceeds="" the="" estimated="" potential="" biological="" removal="" (pbr)="" for="" the="" stock.="" under="" this="" new="" regime,="" nmfs="" is="" required="" to="" permit="" the="" take="" of="" endangered="" and="" threatened="" marine="" mammals="" incidental="" to="" commercial="" fishing="" under="" section="" 101(a)(5)(e)="" of="" the="" mmpa,="" provided="" that="" (1)="" the="" incidental="" mortality="" and="" serious="" injury="" would="" have="" a="" negligible="" impact="" on="" the="" affected="" species="" or="" stock,="" (2)="" a="" recovery="" plan="" for="" that="" species="" or="" stock="" has="" been="" developed="" or="" is="" being="" developed,="" and="" (3)="" where="" required="" under="" section="" 118="" of="" the="" mmpa,="" a="" monitoring="" program="" has="" been="" established,="" vessels="" are="" registered,="" and="" a="" take="" reduction="" plan="" has="" been="" developed="" or="" is="" being="" developed.="" the="" 1994="" amendments="" to="" the="" mmpa="" defined="" pbr="" as="" the="" maximum="" level="" of="" animals,="" not="" including="" natural="" mortalities,="" that="" can="" be="" removed="" from="" a="" marine="" mammal="" stock="" while="" allowing="" that="" stock="" to="" reach="" or="" maintain="" its="" optimum="" sustainable="" population.="" stocks="" of="" marine="" mammals="" listed="" as="" threatened="" or="" endangered="" under="" the="" esa="" are="" considered="" ``strategic="" stocks''="" under="" the="" mmpa,="" and="" nmfs="" is="" to="" develop="" and="" implement="" take="" reduction="" plans="" for="" such="" stocks="" that="" have="" either="" frequent="" or="" occasional="" interactions="" with="" commercial="" fisheries.="" the="" goal="" of="" these="" plans="" is="" to="" reduce="" incidental="" mortality="" or="" serious="" injury="" of="" marine="" mammals="" during="" commercial="" fishing="" operations="" to="" less="" than="" the="" pbr="" level="" within="" 6="" months="" of="" implementation="" and="" to="" insignificant="" levels="" approaching="" a="" zero="" mortality="" and="" serious="" injury="" rate="" by="" april="" 30,="" 2001.="" nmfs="" is="" committed="" to="" convening="" take="" reduction="" teams="" to="" develop="" take="" reduction="" plans="" for="" strategic="" stocks="" of="" marine="" mammals,="" including="" both="" the="" western="" and="" eastern="" populations="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" in="" addition="" to="" take="" reduction="" plan="" implementation,="" section="" 101(a)(5)="" of="" the="" mmpa="" allows="" nmfs="" to="" authorize="" the="" take="" of="" threatened="" and="" endangered="" marine="" mammals="" incidental="" to="" commercial="" fishing="" operations="" only="" if,="" among="" other="" things,="" that="" take="" will="" have="" a="" ``negligible="" impact''="" on="" the="" stock.="" nmfs="" issued="" an="" incidental="" take="" statement="" (on="" august="" 25,="" 1995)="" that="" authorizes,="" under="" section="" 7(b)(4)="" of="" the="" esa,="" the="" incidental="" mortality="" and="" serious="" injury="" in="" commercial="" fisheries.="" subsistence="" harvests:="" under="" section="" 10(e)="" of="" the="" esa,="" prohibitions="" on="" the="" taking="" of="" threatened="" and="" endangered="" species="" normally="" do="" not="" apply="" to="" takings="" by="" native="" alaskans="" if="" such="" taking="" is="" primarily="" for="" subsistence="" purposes.="" to="" date,="" no="" action="" has="" been="" taken="" to="" regulate,="" or="" otherwise="" manage,="" the="" subsistence="" harvest="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" by="" alaska="" native="" groups.="" if="" subsistence="" takings="" materially="" and="" negatively="" affect="" the="" species,="" regulations="" or="" restrictions="" may="" be="" imposed="" only="" after="" a="" hearing="" and="" decision="" on="" the="" record.="" section="" 119="" of="" the="" mmpa="" allows="" the="" secretary="" of="" commerce="" to="" enter="" into="" cooperative="" agreements="" with="" alaska="" native="" organizations="" to="" conserve="" marine="" mammals="" and="" provide="" co-management="" of="" subsistence="" uses.="" in="" 1994,="" an="" interim="" alaska="" native="" steller="" sea="" lion="" commission="" consisting="" of="" representatives="" from="" alaska="" communities="" that="" take="" steller="" sea="" lions="" for="" subsistence="" needs="" was="" formed="" to="" improve="" communication="" among="" indigenous="" communities="" that="" use="" sea="" lions,="" to="" advocate="" for="" conservation="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" to="" advocate="" for="" protection="" of="" customary="" and="" traditional="" rights="" of="" indigenous="" peoples="" with="" regard="" to="" access="" and="" use="" of="" sea="" lions,="" and="" to="" serve="" as="" the="" focal="" point="" for="" development="" of="" co-management="" agreements="" with="" nmfs.="" through="" co-="" management="" agreements="" between="" nmfs="" and="" the="" alaska="" native="" sea="" lion="" commission="" or="" tribal="" entities,="" self-management="" and="" regulation="" of="" the="" subsistence="" harvest="" by="" alaska="" native="" tribes,="" communities,="" or="" the="" commission="" will="" be="" developed.="" nmfs="" is="" not="" considering="" regulation="" of="" the="" subsistence="" harvest="" at="" this="" time="" but="" hopes="" to="" work="" with="" alaska="" native="" communities="" and="" representatives="" to="" ensure="" that="" subsistence="" harvest="" does="" not="" adversely="" affect="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population.="" critical="" habitat:="" currently,="" designated="" critical="" habitat="" for="" steller="" sea="" lions="" includes="" major="" rookeries="" in="" alaska,="" oregon="" and="" california,="" major="" haulout="" areas="" in="" alaska,="" and="" three="" special="" aquatic="" foraging="" areas="" in="" waters="" off="" alaska,="" the="" shelikof="" strait="" are,="" the="" bogoslof="" area,="" and="" the="" seguam="" pass="" area.="" critical="" habitat="" provides="" the="" public="" and="" other="" federal="" agencies="" with="" notice="" of="" particular="" areas="" and="" features="" that="" are="" essential="" to="" the="" conservation="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" consultation="" under="" section="" 7(a)(2)="" of="" the="" esa="" is="" required="" for="" any="" agency="" action="" that="" may="" affect="" critical="" habitat.="" nmfs="" believes="" that="" the="" current="" designation="" of="" critical="" habitat="" is="" adequate="" and="" is="" not="" proposing="" to="" revise="" that="" designation="" at="" this="" time.="" restrictions="" on="" fishing="" activities:="" although="" the="" relationship="" between="" commercial="" fisheries="" and="" the="" ability="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" to="" obtain="" adequate="" food="" is="" not="" clear,="" a="" change="" in="" food="" availability,="" especially="" for="" juvenile="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" is="" a="" leading="" hypothesis="" of="" the="" continuing="" decline="" in="" the="" western="" population="" segment.="" the="" gulf="" of="" alaska="" (goa)/bering="" sea="" and="" aleutian="" island="" management="" area="" (bsai)="" is="" the="" geographic="" region="" where="" steller="" sea="" lions="" have="" experienced="" the="" greatest="" population="" decline="" and="" is="" also="" an="" area="" where="" large="" commercial="" fisheries="" have="" developed.="" as="" a="" result,="" nmfs="" has="" implemented="" protective="" regulations="" to="" reduce="" the="" possible="" effects="" of="" certain="" commercial="" groundfish="" fisheries="" on="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" especially="" the="" groundfish="" fisheries="" of="" the="" goa="" and="" the="" bsai.="" many="" of="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion's="" preferred="" prey="" species="" are="" harvested="" by="" commercial="" fisheries="" in="" this="" region,="" and="" food="" availability="" to="" steller="" sea="" lions="" may="" be="" affected="" by="" fishing.="" because="" of="" concerns="" that="" commercial="" fisheries="" in="" these="" essential="" sea="" lion="" habitats="" could="" deplete="" prey="" abundance,="" nmfs="" amended="" the="" bsai="" and="" goa="" groundfish="" fishery="" management="" plans.="" under="" the="" magnuson="" act,="" nmfs:="" (1)="" prohibited="" trawling="" year-round="" within="" 10="" nm="" of="" listed="" goa="" and="" bsai="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookeries;="" (2)="" prohibited="" trawling="" within="" 20="" nm="" of="" the="" akun,="" akutan,="" sea="" lion="" rock,="" agligadak,="" and="" seguam="" rookeries="" during="" the="" bsai="" winter="" pollock="" roe="" fishery="" to="" mitigate="" concentrated="" fishing="" effort="" on="" the="" southeastern="" bering="" sea="" shelf="" and="" in="" seguam="" pass;="" and="" (3)="" placed="" spatial="" and="" temporal="" restrictions="" on="" the="" goa="" pollock="" harvest="" to="" divert="" some="" fishing="" effort="" away="" from="" sea="" lion="" foraging="" areas="" and="" to="" spread="" effort="" over="" the="" calendar="" year.="" nmfs="" also="" seasonally="" expanded="" the="" 10="" nm="" no-trawl="" zone="" around="" ugamak="" island="" in="" the="" eastern="" aleutians="" to="" 20="" nm="" (58="" fr="" 13561,="" march="" 12,="" 1993).="" the="" expanded="" seasonal="" ``buffer''="" at="" ugamak="" island="" better="" encompassed="" steller="" sea="" lion="" winter="" habitats="" and="" juvenile="" foraging="" areas="" in="" the="" eastern="" aleutian="" islands="" region="" during="" the="" bsai="" winter="" pollock="" fishery.="" consultations="" under="" section="" 7="" of="" the="" esa="" have="" been="" conducted="" on="" annual="" total="" allowable="" catch="" specifications="" for="" the="" goa="" and="" bsai="" fisheries="" as="" well="" as="" all="" other="" changes="" in="" the="" fishery.="" however,="" nmfs="" is="" concerned="" about="" the="" adequacy="" of="" these="" protective="" measures="" and="" believes="" that="" reevaluation="" of="" the="" regulations="" is="" needed.="" further,="" the="" recovery="" team="" has="" recommended="" nmfs="" evaluate="" the="" need="" for="" additional="" measures="" in="" order="" to="" enhance="" food="" availability="" near="" rookeries="" and="" haulouts="" in="" the="" western="" area.="" current="" regulations="" of="" the="" groundfish="" fisheries="" in="" the="" goa="" and="" bsai="" were="" implemented="" under="" the="" magnuson="" act.="" nmfs="" anticipates="" that="" additional="" protections="" or="" changes="" in="" these="" measures="" would="" also="" be="" [[page="" 51976]]="" implemented="" under="" that="" act.="" nmfs="" is="" not="" proposing="" such="" revisions="" at="" this="" time="" although="" comments="" on="" this="" issue="" are="" invited.="" other="" regulatory="" mechanisms:="" the="" inadequacy="" of="" other="" regulatory="" mechanisms="" has="" been="" suggested="" as="" a="" factor="" in="" the="" decline="" or="" vulnerability="" of="" both="" steller="" sea="" lion="" populations.="" as="" mentioned="" above="" comments="" received="" on="" the="" status="" review="" notice="" included="" suggestions="" that="" additional="" regulations="" were="" needed="" to="" protect="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" the="" effects="" of="" oil="" and="" gas="" exploration="" and="" development.="" in="" most="" cases,="" other="" agencies,="" such="" as="" minerals="" management="" services="" and="" the="" forest="" service,="" are="" more="" involved="" in="" the="" direct="" regulation="" of="" these="" types="" of="" activities.="" of="" course,="" these="" agencies="" are="" expected="" to="" consult="" with="" nmfs="" on="" actions="" they="" authorize,="" fund,="" or="" carry="" out="" to="" ensure="" these="" actions="" are="" not="" likely="" to="" jeopardize="" the="" continued="" existence="" of="" listed="" species="" or="" to="" destroy="" or="" adversely="" modify="" critical="" habitat.="" reinitiation="" of="" consultation="" is="" expected="" in="" most="" situations,="" given="" recent="" information="" concerning="" the="" status="" of="" the="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" comments="" received="" concerning="" the="" adequacy="" of="" regulations="" issued="" by="" other="" agencies="" will="" be="" considered="" during="" the="" consultation="" process.="" conclusions="" regarding="" the="" inadequacy="" of="" existing="" regulatory="" mechanisms:="" nmfs="" has="" not="" made="" a="" final="" determination="" with="" respect="" to="" the="" adequacy="" or="" inadequacy="" of="" existing="" regulatory="" mechanisms.="" nmfs="" recognizes="" the="" need="" for="" further="" consideration="" of="" the="" need="" for,="" the="" adequacy="" of,="" and="" the="" benefits="" of="" existing="" regulations.="" in="" some="" cases,="" even="" after="" further="" study,="" it="" may="" be="" difficult="" or="" impossible="" to="" make="" definite="" determinations="" about="" the="" adequacy="" of="" specific="" regulations="" because="" of="" the="" lack="" of="" knowledge="" or="" understanding="" of="" the="" mechanisms="" contributing="" to="" the="" decline="" or="" vulnerability="" of="" steller="" sea="" lion="" populations.="" nmfs="" is="" in="" the="" process="" of="" reinitiating="" or="" requesting="" reinitiation="" of="" consultation="" under="" section="" 7="" of="" the="" esa="" with="" respect="" to="" various="" agency="" actions="" that="" may="" affect="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" reinitiation="" is="" necessary="" because="" of="" new="" information="" about="" the="" status="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" and="" is="" expected="" to="" help="" nmfs="" assess="" the="" adequacy="" of="" certain="" regulatory="" mechanisms.="" in="" some="" cases,="" nmfs="" anticipates="" that="" regulations="" may="" be="" needed="" to="" be="" revised="" to="" protect="" steller="" sea="" lions="" or="" to="" aid="" population="" recovery.="" review="" and="" revision="" of="" steller="" sea="" lion="" management="" regulations,="" to="" the="" maximum="" extent="" practicable,="" will="" be="" undertaken="" in="" full="" consultation="" with="" affected="" parties,="" federal="" and="" state="" agencies,="" and="" public="" interest="" groups.="" except="" with="" respect="" to="" the="" regulatory="" measures="" proposed="" in="" this="" action,="" nmfs="" anticipates="" that="" major="" regulatory="" revisions="" will="" be="" implemented="" by="" rulemaking="" that="" is="" separate="" from="" any="" final="" esa="" listing="" reclassification.="" e.="" other="" natural="" or="" manmade="" factors="" affecting="" its="" continued="" existence="" other="" factors="" also="" may="" affect="" either="" or="" both="" populations="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" in="" particular,="" removals="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" the="" wild,="" resulting="" from="" direct="" and="" incidental="" takings,="" may="" be="" a="" contributing="" factor="" in="" past="" and="" continuing="" declines.="" changes="" in="" food="" availability="" is="" another="" factor="" that="" may="" be="" causing="" declines.="" contaminants="" are="" also="" a="" concern.="" these="" other="" factors="" are="" discussed="" in="" more="" detail="" in="" the="" following="" sections.="" removals="" from="" the="" western="" population="" segment:="" steller="" sea="" lions="" frequently="" interact="" with="" commercial="" fisheries,="" and="" many="" have="" been="" reported="" incidentally="" taken="" in="" fisheries="" in="" the="" gulf="" of="" alaska,="" bering="" sea,="" and="" aleutian="" islands="" area.="" estimates="" of="" the="" total="" number="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" taken="" in="" commercial="" trawl="" fisheries="" in="" these="" waters="" from="" 1966="" through="" 1988="" exceed="" 20,000="" animals="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" incidental="" catch="" appears="" to="" have="" been="" a="" contributing="" factor="" in="" the="" population="" decline="" in="" some="" areas="" of="" the="" aleutian="" islands="" and="" gulf="" of="" alaska="" during="" certain="" time="" periods.="" in="" recent="" years,="" the="" number="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" taken="" in="" federally-managed="" commercial="" groundfish="" fisheries="" in="" the="" gulf="" of="" alaska,="" bering="" sea,="" and="" aleutian="" islands="" has="" been="" relatively="" low="" (less="" than="" 30/year),="" and="" incidental="" take="" in="" these="" fisheries="" is="" no="" longer="" thought="" to="" be="" a="" major="" factor="" affecting="" the="" western="" population.="" alaska="" native="" subsistence="" hunters="" have="" been="" estimated="" to="" take="" about="" 500="" steller="" sea="" lions="" annually="" in="" recent="" years;="" virtually="" all="" of="" the="" subsistence="" harvest="" in="" alaska="" occurs="" within="" the="" range="" of="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" (wolfe="" and="" mischler,="" 1993;="" 1994).="" these="" removals="" have="" an="" impact="" on="" the="" population="" although="" the="" magnitude="" of="" estimates="" in="" comparison="" to="" the="" reported="" declines="" indicate="" that="" subsistence="" harvest="" has="" not="" been="" a="" significant="" factor="" in="" the="" decline.="" however,="" should="" the="" western="" population="" segment="" continue="" to="" decline="" and="" the="" subsistence="" harvest="" continue="" at="" the="" same="" level,="" it="" may="" become="" significant.="" removals="" from="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment:="" accurate="" data="" on="" incidental="" takes="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" in="" other="" fisheries="" in="" southeast="" alaska,="" oregon,="" and="" california="" are="" not="" available,="" but="" estimates="" from="" available="" sources="" are="" low.="" alaska="" native="" takes="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" within="" the="" eastern="" population="" (southeast="" alaska)="" have="" been="" estimated="" at="" less="" than="" 10="" animals="" annually="" (wolfe="" and="" mischler,="" 1993;="" 1994).="" the="" calculated="" pbr="" for="" the="" eastern="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lion="" is="" 706="" animals,="" well="" above="" the="" current="" level="" of="" human-caused="" mortality.="" food="" availability="" for="" the="" western="" population="" segment:="" steller="" sea="" lions="" are="" opportunistic="" feeders,="" that="" feed="" primarily="" on="" schooling="" demersal="" fish,="" such="" as="" walleye="" pollock,="" atka="" mackerel,="" herring,="" and="" capelin.="" declines="" in="" sea="" lion="" abundance="" may="" be="" related="" to="" changes="" in="" the="" availability="" of="" sea="" lion="" prey.="" changes="" in="" the="" quantity="" or="" quality="" of="" available="" prey="" could="" have="" a="" chronic="" negative="" influence="" on="" the="" health="" and="" fitness="" of="" individual="" sea="" lions,="" resulting="" in="" reduced="" reproductive="" potential,="" increased="" susceptibility="" to="" disease,="" or="" death="" (loughlin="" and="" merrick,="" 1989).="" calkins="" and="" goodwin="" (1988)="" observed="" that="" steller="" sea="" lions="" collected="" in="" the="" kodiak="" island="" area="" in="" 1985-86="" were="" significantly="" smaller="" at="" age="" than="" animals="" collected="" from="" 1975-78,="" and="" hypothesized="" that="" nutritional="" stress="" was="" the="" cause.="" juvenile="" sea="" lions,="" which="" are="" less="" adept="" foragers,="" may="" be="" most="" affected="" by="" changes="" in="" food="" availability.="" demographic="" studies="" at="" ugamak="" and="" marmot="" island="" rookeries="" suggest="" that="" juvenile="" survival="" has="" been="" greatly="" reduced="" over="" the="" last="" 20="" years,="" and="" that="" this="" reduced="" juvenile="" survival="" may="" be="" the="" proximate="" cause="" of="" the="" population="" decline="" (nmfs,="" 1995).="" the="" role="" of="" food="" availability="" in="" the="" population="" decline="" remains="" unclear="" and="" is="" being="" investigated="" by="" researchers.="" the="" bsai="" and="" goa="" commercial="" groundfish="" fisheries="" target="" important="" prey="" species="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" notably="" wallege="" pollock="" and="" atka="" mackerel.="" whether="" these="" fisheries="" actually="" deplete="" food="" resources="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" is="" unclear.="" analyses="" that="" have="" compared="" fishery="" harvests="" with="" changes="" in="" steller="" sea="" lion="" abundance="" have="" been="" inconclusive,="" but="" the="" limitations="" of="" the="" available="" data="" may="" confound="" results="" (loughlin="" and="" merrick,="" 1989;="" ferrero="" and="" fritz,="" 1994).="" one="" working="" hypothesis="" is="" that="" where="" and="" how="" fisheries="" operate="" is="" significant="" to="" steller="" sea="" lions="" even="" if="" overall="" fishery="" removal="" levels="" are="" conservative="" of="" fish="" stocks.="" fisheries="" that="" harvest="" large="" quantities="" of="" fish="" in="" relatively="" small="" geographic="" areas="" and="" short="" periods="" of="" time="" may="" deplete="" the="" local="" abundance="" of="" fishery="" resources.="" when="" such="" a="" fishery="" occurs="" in="" important="" steller="" sea="" lion="" foraging="" habitat="" and="" [[page="" 51977]]="" targets,="" or="" has="" a="" significant="" bycatch="" of,="" steller="" sea="" lion="" prey="" species="" (as="" the="" pollock="" and="" atka="" mackerel="" fisheries="" do),="" the="" fishery="" may="" make="" it="" more="" difficult="" for="" sea="" lions="" to="" obtain="" food.="" this="" is="" likely="" to="" be="" more="" important="" in="" the="" winter="" when="" alternate="" food="" resources="" are="" fewer="" and="" sea="" lion="" metabolic="" costs="" higher,="" and="" to="" be="" more="" significant="" to="" newly-weaned="" juveniles,="" which="" are="" less="" adept="" foragers.="" based="" on="" these="" hypotheses,="" nmfs="" established="" no="" groundfish="" trawl="" zones="" around="" listed="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookeries="" in="" the="" goa="" and="" bsai="" (to="" reduce="" harvest="" in="" important="" foraging="" habitats),="" and="" created="" geographic="" fishery="" allocation="" areas="" in="" the="" goa="" for="" pollock="" (to="" disperse="" fishing="" effort).="" the="" hypothesized="" change="" in="" prey="" availability="" to="" steller="" sea="" lions="" could="" also="" be="" related="" to="" environmental="" change.="" changes="" in="" the="" abundance="" of="" several="" species="" of="" fish,="" shellfish,="" birds,="" and="" other="" marine="" mammals="" in="" the="" bsai="" and="" goa="" have="" been="" documented="" over="" the="" last="" 20="" years.="" in="" particular,="" some="" important="" forage="" fish="" stocks,="" such="" as="" capelin="" and="" sand="" lance,="" appeared="" to="" have="" declined="" in="" both="" the="" bsai="" and="" goa="" during="" the="" 1970's="" and="" 1980's.="" some="" of="" these="" observed="" changes="" in="" the="" ecosystem="" can="" be="" linked="" to="" human="" activities="" (e.g.,="" fisheries,="" marine="" mammal="" harvests,="" hatcheries)="" whereas="" others="" appear="" to="" be="" related="" to="" natural="" phenomena="" (e.g.,="" oceanic="" temperature="" changes).="" contaminants="" affecting="" both="" populations:="" concern="" has="" been="" expressed="" about="" the="" possible="" adverse="" effects="" of="" anthropogenic="" contaminants="" on="" the="" health="" and="" productivity="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions,="" particularly="" in="" the="" western="" population="" and="" in="" california.="" presently,="" the="" significance,="" if="" any,="" of="" toxic="" substances="" in="" steller="" sea="" lion="" population="" declines="" is="" not="" known,="" and="" additional="" research="" is="" warranted.="" proposed="" determinations="" the="" best="" available="" information="" indicates="" that="" steller="" sea="" lions="" should="" be="" managed="" as="" two="" discrete="" population="" segments="" and="" nmfs="" proposes="" separate="" listings="" of="" the="" eastern="" and="" the="" western="" population="" segments="" of="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" for="" the="" purposes="" of="" the="" esa.="" available="" data="" on="" population="" trends="" indicate="" that="" the="" western="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" is="" in="" danger="" of="" extinction="" throughout="" all="" or="" a="" significant="" part="" of="" its="" range.="" this="" population="" had="" exhibited="" a="" precipitous,="" large="" population="" decline="" at="" the="" time="" that="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" was="" listed="" as="" a="" threatened="" species="" in="" 1990,="" and="" has="" continued="" to="" decline="" since="" the="" listing.="" although="" the="" precise="" cause(s)="" of="" the="" decline="" have="" not="" been="" determined,="" it="" is="" likely="" that="" the="" current="" condition="" is="" caused="" by="" a="" combination="" of="" the="" factors="" specified="" under="" section="" 4(a)(1)="" of="" the="" esa.="" therefore,="" nmfs="" proposes="" that="" the="" western="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" be="" listed="" as="" an="" endangered="" species="" under="" the="" esa.="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment="" was="" originally="" listed="" as="" a="" threatened="" species="" in="" 1990="" when="" the="" entire="" species="" was="" listed.="" the="" eastern="" population="" has="" exhibited="" a="" stable="" to="" increasing="" population="" trend="" for="" the="" last="" 15="" years;="" however,="" nmfs="" believes="" that="" the="" large="" decline="" within="" the="" overall="" u.s.="" population="" threatens="" the="" continued="" existence="" of="" the="" entire="" species.="" this="" is="" particularly="" true="" since="" the="" underlying="" causes="" of="" the="" decline="" remain="" unknown,="" and="" thus,="" unpredictable.="" therefore,="" despite="" the="" apparent="" stability="" of="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment,="" nmfs="" proposes="" to="" maintain="" a="" threatened="" listing="" for="" this="" portion="" of="" the="" geographic="" range.="" this="" proposed="" determination="" allows="" a="" differentiation="" between="" the="" two="" populations="" that="" acknowledges="" the="" different="" individual="" population="" trends,="" but="" does="" not="" lose="" sight="" of="" the="" overall="" trend="" for="" the="" species.="" nmfs,="" in="" conjunction="" with="" the="" recovery="" team,="" will="" develop="" appropriate="" delisting="" criteria="" for="" the="" eastern="" population="" segment.="" nmfs="" policies="" on="" endangered="" and="" threatened="" wildlife="" on="" july="" 1,="" 1994,="" nmfs,="" jointly="" with="" the="" u.s.="" fish="" and="" wildlife="" service,="" published="" a="" series="" of="" new="" policies="" regarding="" listings="" under="" the="" esa,="" including="" a="" policy="" for="" peer="" review="" of="" scientific="" data="" (59="" fr="" 34270)="" and="" a="" policy="" to="" identify,="" to="" the="" maximum="" extent="" possible,="" those="" activities="" that="" would="" or="" would="" not="" constitute="" a="" violation="" of="" section="" 9="" of="" the="" esa="" (59="" fr="" 34272).="" role="" of="" peer="" review:="" the="" intent="" of="" the="" peer="" review="" policy="" is="" to="" ensure="" that="" listings="" are="" based="" on="" the="" best="" scientific="" and="" commercial="" data="" available.="" prior="" to="" a="" final="" listing,="" the="" services="" will="" solicit="" the="" expert="" opinions="" of="" three="" appropriate="" and="" independent="" specialists.="" further,="" independent="" peer="" reviewers="" will="" be="" selected="" from="" the="" academic="" and="" scientific="" community,="" tribal="" and="" other="" native="" american="" groups,="" federal="" and="" state="" agencies,="" and="" the="" private="" sector.="" identification="" of="" those="" activities="" that="" would="" constitute="" a="" violation="" of="" section="" 9="" of="" the="" esa:="" section="" 9="" of="" the="" esa="" prohibits="" certain="" activities="" that="" directly="" or="" indirectly="" affect="" endangered="" and="" threatened="" species.="" under="" the="" esa="" and="" regulations,="" it="" is="" illegal="" to="" take="" (includes="" harass,="" harm,="" pursue,="" hunt,="" shoot,="" wound,="" kill,="" trap,="" capture="" or="" collect)="" or="" to="" attempt="" to="" take="" any="" endangered="" and="" most="" threatened="" species.="" activities="" considered="" by="" the="" agency="" to="" constitute="" a="" ``take''="" of="" an="" endangered="" or="" threatened="" steller="" sea="" lion="" include:="" 1.="" shooting="" at="" or="" near="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion.="" an="" example="" would="" be="" an="" individual="" who="" shoots="" at="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion="" to="" deter="" or="" distract="" it="" from="" taking="" fish="" off="" the="" individual's="" fishing="" gear;="" another="" example="" is="" shooting="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion="" with="" a="" paint="" ball="" gun;="" 2.="" collecting="" steller="" sea="" lion="" parts.="" the="" esa="" prohibits="" the="" collection="" of="" an="" endangered="" species="" or="" parts="" therefrom.="" therefore,="" it="" would="" be="" illegal="" to="" collect="" parts="" from="" a="" dead="" steller="" sea="" lion="" that="" has="" washed="" ashore;="" 3.="" pursuing="" or="" harassing="" steller="" sea="" lions.="" an="" example="" would="" be="" pursuing="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion="" in="" an="" attempt="" to="" watch="" its="" behavior="" or="" to="" obtain="" a="" better="" view="" of="" it="" from="" a="" vessel.="" these="" illegal="" activities="" can="" be="" committed="" by="" guided="" marine="" life="" tour="" operators="" as="" well="" as="" individual="" recreational="" boaters.="" persons="" who="" wish="" to="" view="" steller="" sea="" lions="" would="" be="" required="" to="" avoid="" any="" actions="" that="" harass="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" or="" actions="" that="" would="" constitute="" pursuit="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" either="" in="" the="" water="" or="" on="" land.="" trying="" to="" get="" the="" perfect="" photograph="" may="" result="" in="" actions="" that="" constitute="" harassment="" or="" pursuit="" of="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion;="" 4.="" approaching="" within="" three="" nautical="" miles="" of="" a="" listed="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookery="" site.="" this="" includes,="" but="" is="" not="" limited="" to,="" transitting="" through="" the="" rookery="" site="" in="" a="" vessel,="" anchoring="" within="" any="" rookery="" site="" or="" fishing="" within="" any="" rookery="" site;="" and="" 5.="" the="" take="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" for="" the="" production="" of="" authentic="" native="" articles="" of="" handicrafts="" and="" clothing="" only.="" the="" esa="" only="" provides="" for="" the="" take="" of="" endangered="" species="" for="" subsistence="" purposes="" and="" the="" take="" must="" not="" be="" done="" in="" a="" wasteful="" manner.="" this="" list="" is="" not="" exhaustive.="" it="" is="" provided="" to="" give="" the="" reader="" some="" examples="" of="" the="" types="" of="" activities="" that="" would="" be="" considered="" by="" the="" agency="" as="" constituting="" a="" ``take''="" of="" an="" endangered="" or="" threatened="" steller="" sea="" lion="" under="" the="" esa="" and="" regulations.="" with="" regard="" to="" activities="" that="" may="" affect="" steller="" sea="" lions="" or="" their="" habitat,="" and="" whose="" likelihood="" of="" violation="" of="" section="" 9="" is="" uncertain,="" the="" nmfs/alaska="" regional="" office="" (see="" addresses)="" should="" be="" contacted="" to="" assist="" in="" determining="" whether="" a="" particular="" activity="" constitutes="" a="" prohibited="" act="" under="" section="" 9.="" [[page="" 51978]]="" references="" cited="" a="" complete="" list="" of="" all="" references="" cited="" herein="" are="" available="" upon="" request="" (see="" addresses).="" classification="" section="" 4(b)(1)="" of="" the="" esa="" restricts="" the="" information="" that="" may="" be="" considered="" when="" assessing="" species="" for="" listing.="" based="" on="" this="" limitation="" and="" the="" opinion="" in="" pacific="" legal="" foundation="" v.="" andrus,="" 657="" f.2d="" 829="" (6th="" cir.="" 1981),="" listing="" actions="" under="" the="" esa="" are="" excluded="" from="" the="" normal="" requirements="" of="" the="" national="" environmental="" policy="" act.="" as="" noted="" in="" the="" conference="" report="" on="" the="" 1982="" amendments="" to="" the="" esa="" (h.r.="" conf.="" rep.="" no.="" 835,="" 97th="" cong.,="" 2d="" sess="" 20.="" (1982)),="" economic="" considerations="" have="" no="" relevance="" to="" determinations="" regarding="" the="" status="" of="" species.="" therefore,="" the="" economic="" analysis="" requirements="" of="" executive="" order="" 12866,="" the="" regulatory="" flexibility="" act,="" and="" the="" paperwork="" reduction="" act="" are="" not="" applicable="" to="" the="" listing="" process.="" dated:="" september="" 28,="" 1995.="" nancy="" foster,="" deputy="" assistant="" administrator="" for="" fisheries,="" national="" marine="" fisheries="" service.="" list="" of="" subjects="" 50="" cfr="" part="" 222="" administrative="" practice="" and="" procedure,="" endangered="" and="" threatened="" species,="" exports,="" imports,="" reporting="" and="" recordkeeping="" requirements,="" transportation.="" 50="" cfr="" part="" 227="" endangered="" and="" threatened="" species,="" exports,="" imports,="" marine="" mammals,="" transportation.="" for="" the="" reasons="" set="" out="" in="" the="" preamble,="" 50="" cfr="" parts="" 222="" and="" 227="" are="" proposed="" to="" be="" amended="" as="" follows:="" part="" 222--endangered="" fish="" or="" wildlife="" 1.="" the="" authority="" citation="" for="" part="" 222="" is="" revised="" to="" read="" as="" follows:="" authority:="" 16="" u.s.c.="" 1361="" et="" seq.="" and="" 1531-1543.="" 2.="" in="" sec.="" 222.23,="" in="" paragraph="" (a)="" after="" ``saimaa="" seal="" (phoca="" hispida="" saimensis);''="" insert="" ``steller="" sea="" lion="" (eumetopias="" jubatus),="" western="" population="" (the="" western="" population="" consists="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" breeding="" colonies="" located="" west="" of="" 144="" deg.="" w.="" long.);''.="" *="" *="" *="" *="" *="" 3.="" section="" 222.32="" is="" added="" to="" subpart="" d="" to="" read="" as="" follows:="" sec.="" 222.32="" special="" prohibitions="" relating="" to="" endangered="" steller="" sea="" lion="" protection.="" general.="" special="" rules="" relating="" to="" endangered="" steller="" sea="" lions="" are="" provided="" at="" part="" 227,="" subpart="" b.="" part="" 227--threatened="" fish="" and="" wildlife="" 4.="" the="" authority="" citation="" for="" part="" 227="" is="" revised="" to="" read="" as="" follows:="" authority:="" 16="" u.s.c.="" 1361="" et="" seq.="" and="" 1531-1543.="" sec.="" 227.12="" [amended]="" 5.="" in="" sec.="" 227.12,="" paragraphs="" (a)="" introductory="" text,="" (a)(1),="" (a)(2),="" (a)(4),="" and="" (b)(2)="" are="" revised="" to="" read="" as="" follows:="" (a)="" general="" prohibitions.="" except="" as="" provided="" under="" paragraph="" (b)="" of="" this="" section,="" the="" prohibitions="" of="" section="" 9="" of="" the="" act="" (16="" u.s.c.="" 1538)="" relating="" to="" the="" western="" population="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" identified="" at="" part="" 222="" also="" apply="" to="" the="" eastern="" population="" which="" consists="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" from="" breeding="" colonies="" located="" east="" of="" 144="" deg.="" w.="" long.="" (1)="" no="" discharge="" of="" firearms="" or="" similar="" devices.="" except="" as="" provided="" in="" paragraph="" (b)="" of="" this="" section,="" no="" person="" subject="" to="" the="" jurisdiction="" of="" the="" united="" states="" may="" discharge="" a="" firearm="" or="" similar="" device="" at="" or="" within="" 100="" yards="" (91.4="" meters)="" of="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion.="" a="" firearm="" or="" similar="" device="" includes="" any="" weapon="" capable="" of="" propelling="" an="" object="" resulting="" in,="" or="" likely="" to="" result="" in,="" injury="" including,="" without="" limitation,="" guns,="" crossbows,="" spearguns,="" bangsticks,="" archery="" gear,="" harpoons="" and="" spears.="" (2)="" no="" approach="" in="" buffer="" areas.="" except="" as="" provided="" in="" paragraph="" (b)="" of="" this="" section:="" (i)="" no="" owner="" or="" operator="" of="" a="" vessel="" may="" allow="" the="" vessel="" to="" approach="" within="" 3="" nautical="" miles="" (5.5="" kilometers)="" of="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookery="" site="" listed="" in="" paragraph="" (a)(3)="" of="" this="" section;="" (ii)="" no="" person="" may="" approach="" on="" land="" not="" privately="" owned="" within="" one-="" half="" statutory="" miles="" (0.8="" kilometers)="" or="" within="" sight="" of="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookery="" site="" listed="" in="" paragraph="" (a)(3)="" of="" this="" section,="" whichever="" is="" greater,="" except="" on="" marmot="" island;="" and="" (iii)="" no="" person="" may="" approach="" on="" land="" not="" privately="" owned="" within="" one="" and="" one-half="" statutory="" miles="" (2.4="" kilometers)="" or="" within="" sight="" of="" the="" eastern="" shore="" of="" marmot="" island,="" including="" the="" steller="" sea="" lion="" rookery="" site="" listed="" in="" paragraph="" (a)(3)="" of="" this="" section,="" whichever="" is="" greater.="" *="" *="" *="" *="" *="" (4)="" quota.="" the="" incidental="" mortality="" and="" serious="" injury="" of="" endangered="" and="" threatened="" steller="" sea="" lions="" in="" commercial="" fisheries="" can="" be="" authorized="" in="" compliance="" with="" sections="" 101(a)(5)="" and="" 118="" of="" the="" marine="" mammal="" protection="" act.="" (b)="" *="" *="" *="" (2)="" official="" activities.="" the="" taking="" of="" steller="" sea="" lions="" should="" be="" reported="" within="" 30="" days="" to="" the="" director,="" alaska="" region,="" national="" marine="" fisheries="" service,="" p.o.="" box="" 21668,="" juneau,="" ak="" 99802.="" paragraph="" (a)="" of="" this="" section="" does="" not="" prohibit="" or="" restrict="" a="" federal,="" state="" or="" local="" government="" official,="" or="" his="" or="" her="" designee,="" who="" is="" acting="" in="" the="" course="" of="" official="" duties="" from:="" (i)="" taking="" a="" steller="" sea="" lion="" in="" a="" humane="" manner,="" if="" the="" taking="" is="" for="" the="" protection="" or="" welfare="" of="" the="" animal,="" the="" protection="" of="" the="" public="" health="" and="" welfare,="" or="" the="" nonlethal="" removal="" of="" nuisance="" animals;="" or="" (ii)="" entering="" the="" buffer="" areas="" to="" perform="" activities="" that="" are="" necessary="" for="" national="" defense,="" or="" the="" performance="" of="" other="" legitimate="" governmental="" activities.="" *="" *="" *="" *="" *="" [fr="" doc.="" 95-24638="" filed="" 9-29-95;="" 1:37="" pm]="" billing="" code="" 3510-22-w="">