[Federal Register Volume 59, Number 38 (Friday, February 25, 1994)]
[Unknown Section]
[Page 0]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 94-4038]
[[Page Unknown]]
[Federal Register: February 25, 1994]
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Part IV
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 17
Determination of Endangered or Threatened Status for 24 Plants From the
Island of Kauai, HI; Final Rule
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
RIN 1018-AB69
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of
Endangered or Threatened Status for 24 Plants From the Island of Kauai,
HI
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
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SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) determines
endangered status pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (Act), for 21 plant taxa and threatened status for 3 plant
taxa. All but seven of the taxa are endemic to the island of Kauai,
Hawaiian Islands. The exceptions are found on the islands of Niihau,
Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and/or Hawaii, as well as Kauai. The 24 plant taxa
and their habitats have been variously affected or are currently
threatened by 1 or more of the following: habitat degradation by
animals (e.g., goats, pigs, axis and mule deer, cattle, and red jungle
fowl); competition for space, light, water, and nutrients by
naturalized, introduced vegetation; erosion of substrate produced by
weathering, or human or animal caused disturbance; recreational and
agricultural activities; habitat loss from fires; and predation by
animals (goats and rats). Due to the small number of existing
individuals and their very narrow distributions, these taxa and most of
their populations are subject to an increased likelihood of extinction
and/or reduced reproductive vigor from stochastic events. This rule
implements the protection and recovery provisions provided by the Act
for these plant taxa.
EFFECTIVE DATE: March 28, 1994.
ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for public
inspection, by appointment, during normal business hours at the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, room 6307, P.O. Box
50167, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Robert P. Smith, at the above address
(808/541-2749).
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Brighamia insignis, Cyanea asarifolia, Cyrtandra limahuliensis,
Delissea rhytidosperma, Diellia pallida, Exocarpos luteolus, Hedyotis
cookiana, Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta fauriei, Lipochaeta micrantha,
Lipochaeta waimeaensis, Lysimachia filifolia, Melicope haupuensis,
Melicope knudsenii, Melicope pallida, Melicope quadrangularis,
Munroidendron racemosum, Nothocestrum peltatum, Peucedanum sandwicense,
Phyllostegia waimeae, Pteralyxia kauaiensis, Schiedea spergulina var.
leiopoda, Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina, and Solanum sandwicense
are endemic to or have the majority of their populations on the island
of Kauai, Hawaii. Seventeen of these taxa are endemic to the island of
Kauai, Hawaii; two additional taxa are now found only on Kauai. One of
these taxa is now or was previously also known from Niihau, four from
Oahu, two from Molokai, two from Maui, and one from the island of
Hawaii.
The island of Kauai is the northernmost and oldest of the eight
major Hawaiian Islands (Foote et al. 1972). This highly eroded island,
characterized by deeply dissected canyons and steep ridges, is 553
square miles (sq mi) (1,430 sq kilometers (km)) in area (Department of
Geography 1983). Kauai was formed about six million years ago by a
single shield volcano. Its caldera, once the largest in the Hawaiian
Islands, now extends about 10 mi (16 km) in diameter and comprises the
extremely wet, elevated tableland of Alakai Swamp (Department of
Geography 1983). Because the highest point on Kauai, at Kawaikini Peak,
is only 5,243 feet (ft) (1,598 meters (m)) in elevation (Department of
Geography 1983), it lacks the contrasting leeward montane rainfall
patterns found on other islands that have higher mountain systems.
Rainfall is, therefore, distributed throughout the upper elevations,
especially at Mount Waialeale, Kauai's second highest point at 5,148 ft
elevation (1,569 m) (Department of Geography 1983). Mount Waialeale is
one of the wettest spots on earth, where annual rainfall averages 450
inches (in) (1,140 centimeters (cm)). (Honda et al. 1967, Joesting
1984). To the west of the Alakai Swamp is the deeply dissected Waimea
Canyon, extending 10 mi (16 km) in length and up to 1 mi (1.6 km) in
width. Later volcanic activity on the southeastern flank of the volcano
formed the smaller Haupu caldera. Subsequent erosion and collapse of
its flank formed Haupu Ridge (Macdonald et al. 1983). One of the
island's most famous features is the Na Pali Coast, where stream and
wave action have cut deep valleys and eroded the northern coast to form
precipitous cliffs as high as 3,000 ft (910 m) (Joesting 1984).
Because of its age and relative isolation, levels of floristic
diversity and endemism are higher on Kauai than on any other island in
the Hawaiian archipelago. However, the vegetation of Kauai has
undergone extreme alterations because of past and present land use.
Land with rich soils was altered by the early Hawaiians and more
recently converted to agricultural use or pasture (Gagne and Cuddihy
1990). Intentional or inadvertent introduction of alien plant and
animal taxa has also contributed to the reduction of native vegetation
on the island of Kauai. Native forests are now limited to the upper
elevation mesic and wet regions within Kauai's conservation district.
The 24 taxa in this rule occur in that district, between 400 and 4,000
ft (120 and 1,200 m) elevation in the western and northwestern portions
of the island or within large State owned tracts of natural area
reserves, forest reserves, and parks. Most of the taxa included in this
rule persist on steep slopes, precipitous cliffs, valley headwalls, and
other regions where unsuitable topography has prevented agricultural
development or where inaccessibility has limited encroachment by alien
animal and plant taxa.
The 24 taxa included in this rule are distributed throughout the
island of Kauai and grow in a variety of vegetation communities
(grassland, shrubland, and forests), elevational zones (coastal to
montane), and moisture regimes (dry to wet). Six taxa are found in
various lowland dry communities. These once abundant communities are
now fragmented due to fire, development, and the ingression of alien
plants and animals. Munroidendron racemosum extends from coastal mesic
vegetation communities to higher elevations in lowland dry (Hawaii
Heritage Program (HHP) 1990a) and mesic forests. Peucedanum sandwicense
is found within a variety of vegetation communities, ranging from
coastal to lowland dry to mesic shrublands and forests. Only 1 of the
24 taxa is found in grasslands. Brighamia insignis grows within Kauai's
lowland dry grassland and shrubland communities in the Na Pali region,
where the annual rainfall is usually less than 65 in (170 cm). Three
taxa, Hibiscus clayi, Delissea rhytidosperma, and Melicope knudsenii,
are located within lowland dry forests, the latter two extending into
mesic forests. Lowland dry forests are characterized by an annual
rainfall of 20 to 80 in (50 to 200 cm), which falls between November
and March, and a well-drained, highly weathered substrate rich in
aluminum (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
Nineteen of the 24 taxa have all or a significant number of their
populations in lowland mesic or wet forest communities. Lowland mesic
forest communities lie between 100 and 3,000 ft (30 and 1,000 m)
elevation and are characterized by a 6.5 to 65 ft (2 to 20 m) tall
canopy and a diverse understory of shrubs, herbs, and ferns. The annual
rainfall of 45 to 150 in (120 to 380 cm) falls predominantly between
October and March (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990). This mesic community often
grades into lowland wet forests which are typically found on the
windward side of the island or in sheltered leeward situations between
330 and 3,940 ft (100 and 1,200 m) elevation. The rainfall in this
lowland wet community may exceed 200 in (500 cm) per year. These
forests were once the predominant vegetation on Kauai but now exist
only on steep rocky terrain or cliff faces. The substrate is generally
of well-drained soils that may support tree canopies up to 130 ft (40
m) in height (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
The habitat of Solanum sandwicense extends to the higher elevation
and drier portions of montane mesic forests, whereas the habitat of
Exocarpos luteolus extends into montane wet forests. Nothocestrum
peltatum and Phyllostegia waimeae are the only taxa found strictly
within these montane communities, which typically occur above 3,000 ft
(1,000 m) elevation (HHP 1991). The annual rainfall in montane
communities may exceed 280 in (700 cm) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
The land that supports these 24 plant taxa is owned by various
private parties, the City and County of Honolulu, and the State of
Hawaii (including State parks, forest reserves, natural area reserves,
the Seabird Sanctuary, and land managed under a cooperative agreement
with the National Park Service).
Discussion of the 24 Plant Taxa Included in This Final Rule
Asa Gray (in Mann 1868) described Brighamia insignis based upon
alcohol-preserved flowers and fruits collected by William Tufts Brigham
on Molokai and a dried specimen collected on Kauai or Niihau by
Ezechiel Jules Remy. The specific epithet means ``outstanding,''
referring to the plant's unique appearance. Brigham's bottled material,
since lost, would today be considered to be Brighamia rockii. Other
published names that Thomas G. Lammers (1989), in the currently
accepted treatment of the genus, considers to be synonymous with B.
insignis include B. insignis f. citrina (Forbes 1917a), B. citrina (St.
John 1958), and B. citrina var. napaliensis (St. John 1969b).
Brighamia insignis, a member of the bellflower family
(Campanulaceae), is an unbranched plant 3 to 16 ft (1 to 5 m) tall with
a succulent stem that is bulbous at the bottom and tapers toward the
top. The fleshy leaves, which measure 5 to 8 in (12 to 20 cm) long and
2.5 to 4.5 in (6.5 to 11 cm) wide, are arranged in a compact rosette at
the apex of the stem. Fragrant yellow flowers are clustered in groups
of 3 to 8 in the leaf axils (the point between the leaf and the stem),
with each flower on a stalk 0.4 to 1.2 in (1 to 3 cm) long. The
hypanthium (basal portion of the flower) has 10 ribs and is topped with
5 oval or loosely triangular calyx lobes (partially fused sepals) 0.02
to 0.04 in (0.5 to 1 millimeter (mm)) long. The yellow petals are fused
into a tube 2.8 to 5.5 in (7 to 14 cm) long and 0.1 to 0.2 in (3 to 4
mm) wide, which flares into five elliptic lobes. The fruit is a capsule
0.5 to 0.7 in (13 to 19 mm) long containing numerous seeds. This
species is a member of a unique endemic Hawaiian genus with only one
other species, presently known only from Molokai, from which it differs
by the color of its petals, its shorter calyx lobes, and its longer
flower stalks (Hillebrand 1888; Johnson 1986; Lammers 1990; Rock 1919;
St. John 1958, 1969b; Takeuchi 1982).
Historically, Brighamia insignis was known from the headland
between Hoolulu and Waiahuakua Valleys along the Na Pali Coast on the
island of Kauai, and from Kaali Spring on the island of Niihau (HHP
1991a1, 1991a2, 1991a4). The Na Pali Coast populations are still extant
and additional populations are known from the same general area. The
two Na Pali Coast populations within or on the boundary of the Hono O
Na Pali Natural Area Reserve (NAR) are within 0.4 mi (0.6 km) of each
other (HHP 1991a1, 1991a3). There are also two populations in the Haupu
Range within 2.7 mi (4.3 km) of each other (HHP 1991a2, 1991a5). In
1992, Hurricane Iniki destroyed approximately half of the individuals
in the Na Pali Coast populations and 7 of the 12 individuals in the
Haupu area (Perlman 1992; Steve Perlman, Hawaii Plant Conservation
Center (HPCC), pers. comm., 1992). The 5 populations grow on State and
private land and total fewer than 40 plants. The status of the small
population on privately owned Niihau is not known, although there are
reports that it was destroyed when the supporting cliff fell away (HHP
1991a4; Wichman and St. John 1990; Charles Christensen, Hawaii
Department of Agriculture (DOA), and John Fay, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (FWS), pers. comms., 1991). This species grows predominantly on
the rocky ledges with little soil or steep sea cliffs in lowland dry
grassland and shrubland from sea level to 1,300 ft (400 m) elevation
(Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, Lammers 1990). Associated plant taxa include
Canthium odoratum (alahe'e), Chamaesyce celastroides ('akoko),
Eragrostis variabilis (kawelu), and Heteropogon contortus (pili grass)
(Gagne and Cuddihy 1990; HHP 1991a1 to 1991a3).
Feral goats (Capra hircus) pose the major threat to Brighamia
insignis by causing defoliation and stem damage, restricting
populations to inaccessible cliffs, and probably causing rock slides
that degrade the plant's habitat. Alien plant taxa are another major
threat to the survival of this species, especially introduced grasses
such as Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass), Setaria gracilis (yellow
foxtail), and Sporobolus africanus (smutgrass), which prevent
establishment of seedlings. Other alien plants that potentially pose a
threat are Lantana camara (lantana), Psidium cattleianum (strawberry
guava), Psidium guajava (common guava), and Syzygium cumini (Java
plum). Hikers transport weed seeds to areas where Brighamia insignis
grows and dislodge rocks that can damage plants. Wildfire also poses a
serious threat to this species. Some plants flower but fail to set
seed, which may be due to a lack of pollinators or a reduction in
genetic variability due to the few existing individuals. Brighamia
insignis is also threatened by stochastic extinction due to low total
numbers and the frequency of disturbance events, such as the rock
slides in their cliff habitat. Carmine spider mite (Tetranychus
cinnabarinus), an introduced insect, has been observed to cause leaf
loss in both cultivated and wild individuals of Brighamia insignis
(Christensen 1979; HHP 1991a1 to 1991a4; HPCC 1990a; Perlman 1979; St.
John 1969b, 1981b; Takeuchi 1982; Wagner et al. 1990; Tim Flynn,
National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG), pers. comm., 1991; S.
Perlman, pers. comm., 1993).
Robert W. Hobdy collected a specimen of Cyanea asarifolia on Kauai
in 1970. Harold St. John (1975) later described and named the taxon.
The specific epithet refers to the leaves, which are similar in shape
to those in the genus Asarum. Recently, St. John (1987d, St. John and
Takeuchi 1987) placed the genus Cyanea in synonymy with Delissea,
resulting in the new combination Delissea asarifolia, but Lammers
(1990) retains both genera in the currently accepted treatment of the
family.
Cyanea asarifolia, a member of the bellflower family, is a
sparingly branched shrub 1 to 3.3 ft (0.3 to 1 m) tall. The heart-
shaped leaves are 3.3 to 4.1 in (8.5 to 10.5 cm) long and 2.8 to 3.1 in
(7 to 8 cm) wide with leaf stalks 4.7 to 5.9 in (12 to 15 cm) long.
Thirty to 40 flowers are clustered on a stalk 1 to 1.2 in (25 to 30 mm)
long, each having an individual stalk 0.3 to 0.4 in (7 to 10 mm) in
length. The slightly curved flowers are white with purple stripes, 0.8
to 0.9 in (20 to 22 mm) long, and about 0.1 in (3.5 mm) wide with
spreading lobes. The five anthers have tufts of white hairs at the
tips. The nearly spherical fruit is a dark purple berry about 0.4 in (1
cm) long. This species is distinguished from others of the genus that
grow on Kauai by the shape of the leaf base, the leaf width in
proportion to the length, and the presence of a leaf stalk (Lammers
1990, St. John 1975).
For over 20 years, Cyanea asarifolia was known only from a
population of five or six plants above the bed of Anahola Stream on
Kauai at its type locality (HHP 1991b1). Because recent attempts to
locate this population were unsuccessful, this population is now
thought to be extirpated (T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991). In 1991, Steven
Perlman and Ken Marr discovered a population of 14 mature plants and 5
seedlings at the headwaters of the Wailua River in central Kauai on
State owned land (HHP 1991b2; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991). This
species typically grows in pockets of soil on sheer rock cliffs in
lowland wet forests (Ken Marr, University of British Columbia, pers.
comm., 1991) at an elevation of approximately 1,080 ft (330 m).
Associated plant taxa include ferns, Hedyotis elatior (manono),
Metrosideros polymorpha (`ohi'a), Touchardia latifolia (olona), and
Urera glabra (opuhe) (Lammers 1990; St. John 1975; Robert Hobdy, Hawaii
Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR), and S. Perlman, pers.
comms., 1991).
Cyanea asarifolia is threatened by stochastic extinction and/or
reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing
individuals. Plants in the area in which the only currently known
population occurs are vulnerable to occasional hurricanes, natural rock
slides, and over-collecting for scientific purposes. In 1992, Hurricane
Iniki heavily damaged the Cyanea asarifolia population, either directly
or indirectly destroying all but four or five juvenile plants. Plants
observed after Hurricane Iniki were frequently damaged by introduced
slugs or rodents (Loyal Mehrhoff, FWS, pers. comm., 1993). Habitat
degradation by feral pigs (Sus scrofa), at least one of which has
invaded the plant's habitat, is a potential threat (T. Flynn, David
Lorence, NTBG, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991).
Lawrence H. MacDaniels first collected Cyrtandra limahuliensis on
Kauai in 1926. St. John (1987a) described the species, naming it for
Limahuli Valley, where Steven Perlman collected the type specimen in
1978.
Cyrtandra limahuliensis, a member of the African violet family
(Gesneriaceae), is an unbranched or few-branched shrub up to 5 ft (1.5
m) tall. The opposite, elliptic leaves are usually 6 to 12 in (15 to 30
cm) long and 2 to 4.7 in (5 to 12 cm) wide. The upper surface of the
toothed leaves is moderately hairy and the lower surface, with deep
veins, is moderately or densely covered with yellowish brown hairs.
Single downy flowers are borne in the leaf axils. The slightly curved
corolla tube (fused petals) barely extends beyond the calyx. The calyx
encloses the approximately 0.8 in (2 cm) long berries at maturity. The
following combination of characteristics distinguish this species from
others of the genus: the leaves are usually hairy, especially on lower
surfaces; the usually symmetrical calyx is tubular or funnel-shaped and
encloses the fruit at maturity; and the flowers are borne singly (St.
John 1987a, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Cyrtandra limahuliensis was known from three areas on
Kauai: Wainiha Valley; Lumahai Valley; and near Kilauea River (HHP
1991c4, 1991c5, 1991c8; C. Christensen, pers. comm., 1992). One
population remains in Wainiha Valley and 11 others exist on Kauai in
Limahuli Valley, Waipa Valley, on Mount Kahili, along the north fork of
Wahiawa Stream, along Anahola Stream, Waioli Valley, and near Powerline
Trail on private and State land (HHP 1991c1 to 1991c3, 1991c5 to
1991c7; HPCC 1991a1 to 1991a2; T. Flynn, R. Hobdy, S. Perlman, and
Warren L. Wagner, Smithsonian Institution, pers. comms., 1991; D.
Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). The 12 known populations, distributed
over a 13 by 18 mi (20 by 30 km) area, range in size from solitary
shrubs to large populations of over 1,000 plants (HHP 1991c1 to 1991c3,
1991c5 to 1991c7; D. Lorence, in litt., 1993). The largest populations
of this species occur in the upper Waioli Valley, where 3 populations
total at least 2,100 individuals (D. Lorence, in litt., 1993). Another
location with ``hundreds or perhaps thousands'' of plants (W.L. Wagner,
pers. comm., 1991) is limited to a 0.25 sq mi (0.4 sq km) area along
the north fork of the Wailua River. Other botanists familiar with this
population believe it to number no more than 500 individuals (T. Flynn
and D. Lorence, pers. comms., 1991). A total of 2,800 to 3,000 plants
are known from these 12 populations. This species typically grows along
streams in lowland wet forests at elevations between 800 and 2,850 ft
(240 and 870 m) (Wagner et al. 1990). Associated taxa include Antidesma
platyphyllum var. hillebrandii (hame), Athyrium sandwichianum (ho`i'o),
Perrottetia sandwicensis (olomea), `ohi'a, Dicranopteris linearis
(uluhe), Gunnera kauaiensis (`ape'ape), Hedyotis sp. (manono), and
Psychotria sp. (kopiko) (HHP 1991c1, 1991c7; T. Flynn, pers. comm.,
1991).
The major threat to Cyrtandra limahuliensis populations is
competition with invasive alien taxa, especially strawberry guava. Each
population has additional threats: Competition with the introduced
grass Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass) and Melastoma candidum (NCN) at
the Mount Kahili population; competition with common guava and habitat
degradation by feral pigs at the Anahola Stream population; and
competition with Hedychium flavescens (yellow ginger) at the Wainiha
Valley population. Individuals of the Wailua Stream population are
situated at the base of a steep cliff and are vulnerable to natural
landslides. The Waioli Valley populations are threatened by several
alien weeds: Rubus rosifolius (thimbleberry); Youngia japonica
(Oriental hawksbeard); Erechtites valerianifolia (fireweed); and
Blechnum occidentale (NCN). Hurricanes are also a potential threat, but
most of the plants have grown back vigorously since Hurricane Iniki
(HHP 1991c1; T. Flynn, R. Hobdy, D. Lorence, and W.L. Wagner, pers.
comms., 1991; D. Lorence, in litt., 1993).
Cyrtandra limahuliensis is not immediately in danger of extinction,
but if the threats outlined above are not curtailed, the species will
become endangered in the future.
Remy first collected a specimen of Delissea rhytidosperma on Kauai
between 1851 and 1855. Horace Mann, Jr. (1867) chose the specific
epithet to describe its wrinkled seeds. Heinrich Wawra (1873) later
described another species, D. kealiae, which he said was closely
related to D. rhytidosperma. In the current treatment of the family,
Lammers (1990) considers D. kealiae to be synonymous with D.
rhytidosperma.
Delissea rhytidosperma, a member of the bellflower family, is a
branched shrub 1.6 to 8.2 ft (0.5 to 2.5 m) tall. The lance-shaped or
elliptic leaves are 3.1 to 7.5 in (8 to 19 cm) long and 0.8 to 2.2 in
(2 to 5.5 cm) wide and have toothed margins. Clusters of 5 to 12
flowers are borne on stalks 0.4 to 0.8 in (1 to 2 cm) long; each flower
has a stalk 0.3 to 0.5 in (8 to 13 mm) long. The greenish white
(sometimes pale purple) corolla is 0.6 to 0.8 in (14 to 20 mm) long.
The stamens are hairless, except for a small patch of hair at the base
of the anthers. The nearly spherical dark purple fruits are 0.3 to 0.5
in (7 to 12 mm) long and contain numerous white seeds. This species
differs from other taxa of the genus by the shape, length, and margins
of the leaves and by having hairs at the base of the anthers
(Hillebrand 1888; Lammers 1990; Rock 1913, 1919; Wimmer 1953).
Historically, Delissea rhytidosperma was known from scattered
locations throughout the island of Kauai. Populations ranged as far
north as Wainiha and Limahuli Valleys, as far east as Kapaa and Kealia,
and as far south as Haupu Range between the elevations of 1,000 and
3,000 ft (300 and 1,000 m) (HHP 1991d3 to 1991d7). Today, only one
population with six individuals, located in State owned Kuia NAR, is
known to exist (HHP 1991d1; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1993). The only
other populations seen in recent years were a single plant in Limahuli
Valley which is now dead and 20 plants in the Haupu Range (Bruegmann
1990; HHP 1991d2; Perlman 1992; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991). The
latter population was destroyed by Hurricane Iniki in 1992 (Perlman
1992; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1993). This species generally grows in
diverse lowland mesic forests or Acacia koa (koa)-dominated lowland dry
forests that have well-drained soils with medium- to fine-textured
subsoil (Foote et al. 1972, Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, Lammers 1990).
Associated plant taxa include Dianella sandwicensis (`uki'uki),
Diospyros sandwicensis (lama), Nestegis sandwicensis (olopua), and
Styphelia tameiameiae (pukiawe) (HHP 1991d1, 1991d2).
Habitat degradation by mule deer or black-tailed deer (Odocoileus
hemionus), feral goats, and feral pigs is the major threat affecting
the survival of Delissea rhytidosperma. Other threats are predation by
rats (Rattus spp.), fire, over-collecting for scientific or
horticultural purposes, landslides, and competition with alien plants
such as lantana, Passiflora ligularis (sweet granadilla), and P.
mollissima (banana poka). This species, with a single extant population
of six individuals, is threatened by stochastic extinction and/or
reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing
individuals. Hurricanes are an additional, and major, threat (Bruegmann
1990; HHP 1991d1; HPCC 1990b; John Obata, HPCC, and S. Perlman, pers.
comms., 1991, 1993).
About 1875, Valdemar Knudsen, a rancher on Kauai, collected a fern
at Halemanu, which Wilhelm Hillebrand (1888) named Lindsaya laciniata,
the specific epithet referring to the divided fronds. Hillebrand also
indicated two varieties: var. subpinnata, a bipinnate form, which may
actually represent another species (Wagner 1952); and an unnamed form.
Friedrick Ludwig Emil Diels (1899) transferred the species to Diellia,
resulting in Diellia laciniata, the name in use at the time the species
was proposed (Lamoureux 1988). Recent studies have recognized these
populations as a new species, Diellia pallida (W.H. Wagner 1993).
Diellia pallida, a member of the spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae),
is a plant that grows in tufts of three to four light green, lance-
shaped fronds along with a few persistent dead ones. The midrib of the
frond ranges from dark purple to brownish gray in color and has a dull
sheen. Scales on the midrib are brown, gray, or black; 0.1 to 0.2 in (3
to 5 mm) long; and rather inconspicuous. The fronds measure 12 to 22 in
(30 to 55 cm) in length and 2 to 5 in (5 to 12 cm) in width and have
short black hairs on the underside. Each frond has approximately 20 to
40 pinnae (divisions or leaflets). The largest pinnae are in the middle
section of the frond, while the lower section has triangular, somewhat
reduced pinnae, with the lowermost pair of pinnae raised above the
plane of the others. The sori (groups of spore-producing bodies), which
are frequently fused along an extended line, are encircled by a
prominent vein. This species differs from others of this endemic
Hawaiian genus by the color and sheen of the midrib, the presence and
color of scales on the midrib, and the frequent fusion of sori
(Hillebrand 1888; Wagner 1952, 1987).
Diellia pallida was known historically from Halemanu on Kauai
(Hillebrand 1888). The species had not been seen since 1949, when a
collection was made in Kuia NAR (Warren H. Wagner, University of
Michigan, pers. comm., 1991). It is currently known from two
populations on State land on the island of Kauai within Kuia NAR and
Koaie Canyon. The recently discovered population on the west side of
Waimea Canyon within Puu Ka Pele Forest Reserve is now apparently
extirpated (CPC 1989a, 1990; HHP 1991e1 to 1991e3; Wagner 1952; D.
Lorence, pers. comm., 1991; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1993; D. Lorence
et al., in litt., 1991). The two known populations extend over a 7 by 3
mi (11 by 5 km) area. In 1987, Joel Lau of The Nature Conservancy of
Hawaii (TNCH) discovered the Koaie Canyon population of three or four
individuals (Bruegmann 1990; HHP 1991e3; Joel Lau, Hawaii Heritage
Program, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). Botanists of NTBG have
since discovered two plants in Puu Ka Pele Forest Reserve, but the
plants have since disappeared and were likely destroyed by goats (D.
Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). Recent visits to the Kuia NAR and
Koaie populations have found a total of less than 10 extant individuals
for this species (HPCC 1991c; Perlman 1992; J. Lau and D. Lorence,
pers. comms., 1991; S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991, 1993). This species
grows on bare soil on steep, rocky, dry slopes of lowland mesic
forests, 1,700 to 2,300 ft (530 to 690 m) in elevation. Associated
plant taxa include koa, Alectryon macrococcus (mahoe), Aleurites
moluccana (kukui), Antidesma platyphyllum (hame), 'ohi'a, Myrsine
lanaiensis (kolea), and Rauvolfia sandwicensis (hao) (HHP 1991e1 to
1991e3; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt.,
1991).
Competition with alien plants, especially lantana and Melia
azedarach (Chinaberry), constitutes the major threat to Diellia
pallida. Introduced grasses, such as Stenotaphrum secundatum (St.
Augustine grass) and Oplismenus hirtellus (basketgrass), and two
naturalized taxa of Polynesian introduction, kukui and Cordyline
fruticosa (ti), degrade this species' habitat. Feral goats cause
erosion near the plants and trample and possibly browse these plants.
Other threats to this species are habitat degradation by feral pigs and
mule deer, fire, over-collecting for scientific purposes, as well as
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals (HHP 1991e2, 1991e3; Bruegmann
1990, Wagner 1950; J. Lau, S. Perlman, and D. Lorence, pers. comms.,
1991).
Reverend John Mortimer Lydgate first collected Exocarpos luteolus
in 1908 and Charles N. Forbes (1910) described the species two years
later. The specific epithet means ``yellow'' and refers to the color of
the receptacle (base of flower) and fruit.
Exocarpos luteolus, a member of the sandalwood family
(Santalaceae), is a moderately to densely branched shrub, 1.6 to 6.6 ft
(0.5 to 2 m) tall with knobby branches. The leaves are of two kinds,
minute scales and more typical leaves. The latter, which are usually
present, are elliptical, lance-shaped or oval, usually 2 to 3.2 in (5
to 8 cm) long and 1 to 1.4 in (25 to 36 mm) wide, and lack a leaf
stalk. The green flowers have five to six petals about 0.04 in (1 mm)
long. The pale yellow fruit is a drupe (single-seeded fleshy fruit),
usually 0.4 to 0.7 in (11 to 19 mm) long, with four distinct
indentations at the apex. About 0.2 to 0.4 in (6 to 9 mm) of the drupe
is exposed above the fleshy, golden-yellow receptacle. This species is
distinguished from others of the genus by its generally larger fruit
with four indentations and by the color of the receptacle and fruit
(Degener 1932a, 1932b; Forbes 1910; Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Exocarpos luteolus was known from three locations on
Kauai: Wahiawa Swamp; Kaholuamanu; and Kumuwela Ridge (HHP 1991f1,
1991f5, 1991f7). This species is now known to grow on Kumuwela Ridge as
well as in Kauaikinana Valley, near Honopu Trail, Waialai, and on the
rim of Kalalau Valley within or on the boundary of Kokee State Park
(HHP 1991f3 to 1991f6; HPCC 1991c; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991)
in a 3 sq mi (5 sq km) area and on Kamalii Ridge in Kealia Forest
Reserve (HHP 1991f2), roughly 16 mi (26 km) away. All known populations
are on State land and are estimated at 250 individuals (HHP 1991f2,
1991f4, 1991f6; Derral Herbst, FWS, pers. comm., 1991; S. Perlman,
pers. comms., 1991, 1993; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). There are
reliable, but unconfirmed, reports that this species was collected on
the slopes of Anahola Mountain about 1970 (D. Herbst, pers. comm.,
1991). Exocarpos luteolus is found at elevations between 2,000 and
3,600 ft (600 and 1,100 m) in a variety of habitats: Wet places
bordering swamps; on open, dry ridges; and lowland to montane, 'ohi'a-
dominated wet forest communities (HHP 1991f1, 1991f3, 1991f4, 1991f6;
Wagner et al. 1990). Associated taxa include koa, pukiawe, and uluhe
(HHP 1991f2 to 1991f5).
Destruction of habitat by feral goats and pigs and competition with
Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy fleabane) are major threats to Exocarpos
luteolus. Aggressive alien taxa degrading this plant's habitat include
Acacia mearnsii (black wattle), Corynocarpus laevigatus (karakanut),
Myrica faya (firetree), and Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry),
all woody plants that displace native Hawaiian taxa. Other threats to
this species include: rats, that eat the fruits; goats, that browse the
plants; and fire, erosion, and over-collecting for scientific purposes
(HHP 1991f6; T. Flynn and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991; D. Lorence et
al., in litt., 1991).
Louis Charles Adelbert von Chamisso collected a plant specimen in
1816 at Kealakekua, island of Hawaii, and named it Kadua cookiana
(Chamisso and Schlechtendal 1829). The specific epithet commemorates
Captain James Cook, the first European to anchor at Kealakekua Bay.
Ernest G. Steudel (1840) transferred the species to the genus Hedyotis,
resulting in the combination H. cookiana.
Hedyotis cookiana, a member of the coffee family (Rubiaceae), is a
small shrub with many branches 4 to 8 in (10 to 20 cm) long. The
papery-textured leaves are long and narrow, 1.5 to 3 in (4 to 8 cm)
long and about 0.2 to 0.5 in (0.5 to 1.2 cm) wide, and fused at the
base to form a sheath around the stem. The bisexual or female flowers
are arranged in clusters of threes on flower stalks about 0.3 to 0.6 in
(8 to 15 mm) long, with the central flower on the longest stalk.
Beneath the flower clusters are sharp-pointed bracts (modified leaves).
The fleshy white corolla is trumpet-shaped and about 0.3 to 0.4 in (8
to 9 mm) long, with lobes about 0.08 in (2 mm) long. Fruits are top-
shaped or spherical capsules about 0.1 in (3.0 to 3.5 mm) long and 0.1
to 0.2 in (3.5 to 4 mm) wide that open at maturity to release wedge-
shaped reddish brown seeds. This plant is distinguished from other
species in the genus that grow on Kauai by being entirely hairless
(Fosberg 1943, Hillebrand 1888, Chamisso and Schlechtendal 1829, Wagner
et al. 1990).
Historically, Hedyotis cookiana was known from only three
collections: Kealakekua on the island of Hawaii; Halawa and Kalawao on
Molokai; and at the foot of the Koolau Mountains on Oahu (Fosberg 1943,
HHP 1991g2, Hillebrand 1888). There is no evidence that it still exists
on any of those islands. This species was discovered in 1976 by Charles
Christensen on the island of Kauai in Waiahuakua Valley on State land
(HHP 1991g1). Between 50 and 100 plants are scattered along a 0.25 mi
(0.4 km) distance in the streambed and lower part of the waterfall.
Although this population has not been observed since its discovery, it
is still believed to be extant (C. Christensen, pers. comm., 1991).
Hedyotis cookiana generally grows in streambeds or on steep cliffs
close to water sources in lowland wet forest communities (C.
Christensen, pers. comm., 1991) and is believed to have formerly been
much more widespread on several of the main Hawaiian Islands at
elevations between 560 and 1,200 ft (170 and 370 m) (Wagner et al.
1990).
The major threat to Hedyotis cookiana, with only one known
population, is stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor.
Potential threats include competition with alien plants, which are
invading the area, and habitat modification by feral pigs and goats,
which have been observed in the area. Individuals of Hedyotis cookiana
grow in a stream bed and on the side of a waterfall. These areas are
vulnerable to flooding and other natural disturbances (HHP 1991u6; C.
Christensen, pers. comm., 1991).
In 1928, Albert W. Duvel discovered several trees of Hibiscus clayi
that had been damaged by cattle (Bos taurus) and brought the species
into cultivation. Isa and Otto Degener named the species after the late
Horace F. Clay, a horticulturist and college instructor who brought the
species to their attention (Degener and Degener 1959a). Sister Margaret
James Roe, in her study of the genus in Hawaii, named H. newhousei as
another species from Kauai (Roe 1959, 1961). In the currently accepted
treatment of the Hawaiian members of the family, David M. Bates (1990)
considers H. newhousei to be a synonym of H. clayi.
Hibiscus clayi, a member of the mallow family (Malvaceae), is a
shrub or tree 13 to 26 ft (4 to 8 m) tall with stems bearing sparse
hairs at the branch tips. The oval or elliptical leaves are usually 1
to 3 in (3 to 7 cm) long and 0.6 to 1.4 in (15 to 35 mm) wide and have
a hairless upper surface and slightly hairy lower surface. The leaf
margins are entire or toothed toward the apex. The flowers are borne
singly near the ends of the branches. The flaring petals are dark red,
1.8 to 2.4 in (45 to 60 mm) long, and 0.4 to 0.7 in (10 to 18 mm) wide.
The green tubular or urn-shaped calyx is usually 0.6 to 1 in (15 to 25
mm) long with five or six shorter bracts beneath. The fruits are pale
brown capsules, 0.5 to 0.6 in (12 to 14 mm) long, containing about 10
oval, brownish-black seeds about 0.16 in (4 mm) long. This species is
distinguished from other native Hawaiian members of the genus by the
lengths of the calyx, calyx lobes, and capsule, and by the margins of
the leaves (Bates 1990, Degener and Degener 1959a).
Hibiscus clayi is known from scattered locations on private and
State land on the island of Kauai: The Kokee region on the western side
of the island; Moloaa Valley to the north; Nounou Mountain in Wailua to
the east; and as far south as Haiku near Halii Stream (HHP 1991h1 to
1991h5). At this time, only the Nounou Mountains population with four
trees, is known to still exist (HHP 1991h2, 1991h3; David Bates,
Cornell University, T. Flynn, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991; D.
Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). It is unclear whether the one
individual from the Kokee region was a cultivated plant. This lowland
dry forest species generally grows on slopes at an elevation of 750 to
1,150 ft (230 to 350 m). Associated taxa include Java plum, koa, kukui,
and ti (Bates 1990; HHP 1991h1, 1991h2).
Before cattle were removed from the area, they greatly damaged the
habitat of Hibiscus clayi. Competition with alien plant taxa currently
threatens this species. Strawberry guava is the greatest threat, but
common guava, Hilo grass, Java plum, kukui, lantana, ti, and Schinus
terebinthifolius (Christmas berry) are also present. The area of the
Nounou Mountain population has been planted with Araucaria columnaris
(columnar araucaria), which is reseeding itself there and may prevent
regeneration of native plants. The close proximity of most of the
plants to a hiking trail makes them prone to disturbance. Pigs pose a
potential threat to the species. The small total number of existing
individuals poses a threat of stochastic extinction and/or reduced
reproductive vigor (Degener and Degener 1959a; HHP 1991h1 to 1991h3;
HPCC 1990c; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1990; D. Bates, T. Flynn, D. Herbst,
and R. Hobdy, pers. comms., 1991).
Abbe Urbain Jean Faurie first collected Lipochaeta fauriei on Kauai
in 1910. During the following year, H. Leveille (1911) named the plant
in honor of him. St. John (1972) described another species from Kauai,
L. deltoidea, but the authors of the current treatment place this name
in synonymy with L. fauriei (Wagner et al. 1990).
Lipochaeta fauriei, a member of the aster family (Asteraceae), is a
perennial herb with somewhat woody, erect or climbing stems up to 16 ft
(5 m) long. The toothed leaves are narrowly triangular, slightly hairy,
3 to 5 in (7 to 13 cm) long, and about 1.2 in (3 cm) wide. Flower heads
occur in clusters of 2 to 3, each comprising 6 to 8 ray florets, 0.2 to
0.5 in (6 to 13 mm) long and about 0.1 in (2.3 mm) wide, and 30 to 35
disk florets 0.1 to 0.2 in (3.3 to 3.9 mm) long. The bracts beneath the
flower heads are purple near the base. Fruits are knobby-textured
achenes (dry, one-seeded fruits) about 0.1 in (2.5 to 3 mm) long and
0.07 in (1.5 to 2 mm) wide. The achenes of the disk florets are
sometimes thinner and shorter than those of the ray florets. This
species belongs to a genus endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and is one
of three species found only on the island of Kauai. This species
differs from the others on Kauai by having a greater number of disk and
ray flowers per flower head, typically longer leaves and leaf stalks,
and longer ray flowers (Gardner 1976, 1979; St. John 1972; Sherff
1935b; Wagner et al. 1985, 1990).
Historically, Lipochaeta fauriei was known from Olokele Canyon on
the island of Kauai (Gardner 1979, HHP 1991i5). This species is now
also known from four other areas on Kauai: Koaie Canyon; Poopooiki;
Haeleele; and lower Hikimoe Valleys (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i4; HPCC 1990d2,
1990d3; St. John 1972). All 5 populations, totalling fewer than 70
individuals, are found on State land (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3; HPCC
1990d2, 1990d3; R. Hobdy and J. Lau, pers. comms., 1991), encompassing
a 6 by 7 mi (10 by 11 km) area. This species most often grows in
moderate shade to full sun and is usually found on the sides of steep
gulches in diverse lowland mesic forests at an elevation of about 1,570
to 2,950 ft (480 to 900 m) (Wagner et al. 1990). Associated plant taxa
include basketgrass, kukui, lama, and Hibiscus waimeae (koki'o
ke'oke'o); the major alien associate is lantana (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3;
HPCC 1990d2, 1990d3).
The major threats to Lipochaeta fauriei are degradation of its
habitat by feral goats and competition with invasive alien plant taxa,
especially lantana. Feral pigs pose a potential threat to the species
and fire is a significant threat. The small total number of individuals
comprises a threat of stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive
vigor to this species (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3; HPCC 1990d1 to 1990d3; R.
Hobdy, J. Lau, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991).
Thomas Nuttall (1841) described Schizophyllum micranthum based on a
specimen collected on Kauai in 1840 during the United States Exploring
Expedition. The specific epithet refers to the small size of the
flowers. In 1843, Guilielmo Gerardo Walpers published the superfluous
name Aphanopappus nuttallii based on the same specimen described by
Nuttall (Gardner 1979). Gray (1861) transferred the species to the
genus Lipochaeta, resulting in L. micrantha. Amos Arthur Heller (1897)
transferred the species into the genus Aphanopappus, resulting in A.
micranthus. Otto Degener and Earl Edward Sherff (Sherff 1941) described
L. exigua as another Kauai taxon based on a specimen collected by Otto
Degener and Emilio Ordonez. In his monograph of the genus, Robert C.
Gardner (1979) recognized L. micrantha var. exigua along with the
typical variety, and this is accepted in the current treatment (Wagner
et al. 1990).
Lipochaeta micrantha, a member of the aster family, is a somewhat
woody perennial herb. The 1.6 to 6.6 ft (0.5 to 2 m) long stems grow
along the ground and root at the nodes, with the tip of the stem
growing upward. The roughly triangular leaves measure 0.8 to 3.8 in
(2.1 to 9.7 cm) long and 0.5 to 3.1 in (1.2 to 7.8 cm) wide. They are
sparsely hairy, with margins smooth or variously lobed. Flower heads
are in clusters of two or three. Each head contains four to five ray
florets, 0.1 to 0.2 in (2.3 to 5.8 mm) long and 0.06 to 0.14 in (1.4 to
3.5 mm) wide, and five to nine disk florets, about 0.1 in (2.7 to 3.1
mm) long. The two recognized varieties of this species, exigua and
micrantha, are distinguished by differences in leaf length and width,
degree of leaf dissection, and the length of the ray florets. The
smaller number of disk florets separates this species from the other
members of the genus on the island of Kauai (Gardner 1976, 1979;
Degener and Degener 1959b, 1962; Sherff 1935b; Wagner et al. 1990).
Only two populations of Lipochaeta micrantha var. exigua are known
from the vicinity of Haupu Range on the island of Kauai (HHP 1991j3).
The populations of this variety are distributed over a 1.5 mi (2.4 km)
distance on privately owned portions of Haupu Range and total between
100 and 500 individuals (HHP 1991j1, 1991j2; HPCC 1991d; T. Flynn,
pers. comm., 1991). Historically, Lipochaeta micrantha var. micrantha
appears to have been more widely distributed on Kauai in Olokele
Canyon, Hanapepe Valley, and in the Koloa District (HHP 1991k1, 1991k5;
HPCC 1991d; T. Flynn and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). This variety
is now known only from two to four populations located on State land in
Koaie Canyon on Kauai, totalling 150 to 570 individuals (CPC 1992; HHP
1991k1, 1991k5; S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991, 1993). The populations
encompass an area of 1.4 square miles (2.3 sq km) approximately 1.4 mi
(2.3 km) apart. Both varieties generally grow on exposed rocky slopes
in diverse lowland mesic forests and sometimes on grassy ridges at an
elevation of 1,000 to 1,300 ft (300 to 400 m) (HHP 1991j1 to 1991j3,
1991k1 to 1991k5; Wagner et al. 1990). Associated plant taxa include
alahe'e, lama, 'ohi'a, Chamaesyce celastroides var. hanapepensis
('akoko), and Neraudia kauaiensis (Gardner 1979; HHP 1991j1, 1991k1,
1991k2).
The major threats to Lipochaeta micrantha are habitat degradation
by feral ungulates and competition with alien plant taxa. Feral pigs
threaten the habitat of both varieties of Lipochaeta micrantha and
signs of damage by feral goats have been seen near individuals of var.
micrantha. Alien plant taxa, such as lantana, affect the habitats of
both varieties. Pluchea carolinensis (sourbush) is found near var.
exigua. Daisy fleabane and Stachytarpheta spp. are components of the
habitat of var. micrantha. Both varieties are threatened by stochastic
extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of
existing populations (HHP 1991j1, 1991j2, 1991k1, 1991k5; HPCC 1990e,
1990f; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991).
Hobdy collected the first specimen of Lipochaeta waimeaensis in
1967. Five years later, St. John (1972) described it as a new species,
naming it for the Waimea Canyon where it grows.
Lipochaeta waimeaensis, a member of the aster family, is a low
growing, somewhat woody perennial herb with stems 3 to 6.5 ft (1 to 2
m) long that root at the nodes. The linear or narrowly elliptical
leaves are 1.9 to 2 in (4.7 to 5 cm) long, 0.2 to 0.3 in (5 to 8 mm)
wide, hairy along major veins on the upper surface, and evenly hairy on
the lower surface. Flower heads are borne singly or in clusters of two
or three. The outer head bracts are lance-shaped and measure 0.1 to 0.2
in (3 to 4 mm) long and 0.06 to 0.08 in (1.5 to 2 mm) wide. The oval
ray florets number four or five per head and are about 0.13 in (3.2 to
3.5 mm) long and about 0.1 in (3 mm) wide. The disk florets number 20
to 25 per head. The fruits are knobby, winged achenes 0.1 in (2.2 to
2.5 mm) long and about 0.08 in (1.7 to 2.3 mm) wide. The ray achenes
are slightly wider and have longer wings than those of the disk. This
species differs from the two other taxa of the genus included in this
rule (L. fauriei and L. micrantha) in having a different leaf shape and
shorter leaf stalks and ray florets (Gardner 1976, 1979; St. John 1972;
Wagner et al. 1990).
Lipochaeta waimeaensis is known only from the type locality, along
the rim of Kauai's Waimea Canyon on State land (HHP 1991m1, HPCC
1991e). Fewer than 10 plants are scattered over a 2.5 acre (ac) (1-
hectare (ha)) area (Gerald Carr, University of Hawaii at Manoa, and S.
Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). This population grows on eroded soil on a
precipitous, shrub-covered gulch in a diverse lowland mesic forest at
an elevation between 1,150 and 1,300 ft (350 and 400 m) (HHP 1991m1,
Wagner et al. 1990). The vegetation at the site is predominantly alien
consisting of Grevillea robusta (silk oak), Leucaena leucocephala (koa
haole), and Rhynchelytrum repens (Natal redtop); however, native taxa
include Dodonaea viscosa ('a'ali'i) and Lipochaeta connata (nehe) (CPC
1989b, 1990; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991) also occur here.
Alien plant taxa competing with and threatening Lipochaeta
waimeaensis include koa haole, Natal redtop, silk oak, and Opuntia
ficus-indica (prickly pear, panini). The existing soil erosion problem
is exacerbated by the presence of feral goats. The single population,
and thus the entire species, is threatened by stochastic extinction
and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing
individuals. Over-collecting for scientific purposes also poses a
threat (G. Carr and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991).
In 1912, Lydgate collected a plant specimen on Kauai that he and
Forbes named Lysimachia filifolia (Forbes 1916). They chose the
specific epithet, which means ``thread-leaved,'' in reference to the
plant's very narrow leaves. Heller (1897) created a new genus,
Lysimachiopsis, in which he placed all endemic Hawaiian taxa of
Lysimachia, and Otto and Isa Degener (1983) later published
Lysimachiopsis filifolia. The current treatment (Wagner et al. 1990)
recognizes Lysimachiopsis as a section of Lysimachia. Most recently,
St. John (1987b) published many species, varieties, and combinations of
Lysimachia, one or more of which may fit into this species (Wagner et
al. 1990).
Lysimachia filifolia, a member of the primrose family
(Primulaceae), is a small shrub 0.5 to 1.6 ft (15 to 50 cm) tall. The
linear leaves measure 0.6 to 2.1 in (15 to 54 mm) long and 0.01 to 0.07
in (0.3 to 1.8 mm) wide and are usually alternately arranged. They are
single-veined and sparsely hairy or hairless. The bell-shaped flowers
are reddish purple, 0.2 to 0.4 in (6 to 10 mm) long, and borne singly
on flower stalks about 0.7 to 1.2 in (18 to 30 mm) long that elongate
upon fruiting. Fruits are thick, hard capsules about 0.2 in (5 to 6 mm)
long that contain numerous minute, nearly black, irregularly shaped
seeds. This species is distinguished from other taxa of the genus by
its leaf shape and width, calyx lobe shape, and corolla length (Forbes
1916, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Lysimachia filifolia was known only from the upper
portion of Olokele Valley on Kauai (HHP 1991n1). This species is now
known from two other areas: The headwaters of the Wailua River on
Kauai; and the slopes of Waiahole Valley in the Koolau Mountains of
Oahu (HHP 1991n2, 1991n3; HPCC 1990g1, 1990g3). Three closely situated
colonies on Kauai are located within a 0.5 sq mi (1.3 sq km) area and
total 76 individuals (K. Marr, pers. comm., 1991). The Oahu population
contains about 150 to 200 individuals (CPC 1989a; HHP 1991n3; HPCC
1990g1, 1990g3). Both populations of this species are located on State
land, totalling approximately 225 to 275 individuals. This species
typically grows on mossy banks at the base of cliff faces within the
spray zone of waterfalls or along streams in lowland wet forests at an
elevation of 800 to 2,200 ft (240 to 680 m) (HHP 1991n1 to 1991n3; HPCC
1990g1, 1990g3; Wagner et al. 1990; K. Marr, pers. comm., 1991).
Associated plant taxa include mosses, ferns, liverworts, pili grass,
Cuphea carthagenensis (tarweed), and Pilea peploides (HHP 1991n3; J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1991).
The major threat to Lysimachia filifolia is competition with alien
plant taxa. Individuals of this species on Kauai are damaged and
destroyed by natural rock slides in their habitat, which is near the
bottom of steep cliffs. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides (marsh pennywort),
tarweed, and thimbleberry, although not invasive weeds, are present in
this near-pristine area of Wailua Stream and may degrade the native
ecosystem. At least one feral pig has made its way into this area,
indicating that this disruptive animal is a potential threat.
Individuals of Lysimachia filifolia on Oahu are vulnerable to rock
slides and compete for space with alien plants such as marsh pennywort,
tarweed, Ageratina riparia (Hamakua pamakani), and Schefflera
actinophylla (octopus tree). Because only one population of Lysimachia
filifolia occurs on each of only two islands, the species is threatened
by stochastic extinction. Hurricane Iniki caused at least some damage
to the Wailua River population (HHP 1991n3; HPCC 1990g2; D. Lorence and
S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991; L. Mehrhoff, pers. comm., 1993).
In 1927, MacDaniels collected a plant specimen on Kauai that St.
John (1944) later named Pelea haupuensis. The specific epithet refers
to the type locality, Haupu, the only known site for this plant until
it was discovered in Waimea Canyon in 1989. Thomas G. Hartley and
Benjamin C. Stone (1989, Stone et al. 1990, Wagner et al. 1990)
synonymized the genus Pelea with Melicope, resulting in the current
name for this taxon, Melicope haupuensis.
Melicope haupuensis, a member of the citrus family (Rutaceae), is a
tree about 26 ft (8 m) tall. The oval leaves, 2 to 5.1 in (5 to 13 cm)
long and 1.1 to 2.2 in (28 to 56 mm) wide, are oppositely arranged.
Flowers grow in clusters of five to seven on stalks usually 0.1 to 2.8
in (2 to 7 mm) long, each flower on a stalk 0.04 to 0.12 in (1 to 3 mm)
long. Only female flowers are known. The flowers are about 0.14 in (3.5
mm) long, dotted with oil glands, and covered with a dense mat of
hairs. Fruits are distinct follicles (a dry fruit that splits open
lengthwise), 0.35 to 0.43 in (9 to 11 mm) long, with a hairless exocarp
and endocarp (outermost and innermost layers of the fruit wall,
respectively). Unlike other taxa of this genus on Kauai, the exocarp
and endocarp are hairless and the sepals are covered with dense hairs
(St. John 1944, Stone 1969, Stone et al. 1990).
For 62 years, Melicope haupuensis was known only from the type
locality on the north side of Haupu Ridge on Kauai (HHP 1991o3). In
1989, two plants were discovered within 1 mi (1.6 km) of each other
along the banks of Koaie Stream on State owned land in Waimea Canyon
(HHP 1991o1, 1991o2; HPCC 1991f). These plants grow on moist talus
slopes in 'ohi'a-dominated lowland mesic forests (Stone et al. 1990)
with such associated taxa as 'a'ali'i and hame, at elevations between
1,230 and 2,690 ft (375 and 820 m) (HHP 1991o1 to 1991o3).
Habitat degradation by feral goats and competition with invasive
alien plant taxa such as lantana and yellow foxtail threaten Melicope
haupuensis. A potential threat to members of this genus is their known
susceptibility to black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus), a burrowing
beetle ubiquitous in Hawaii at elevations below 2,500 ft (670 m). The
existence of only two known trees of this species constitutes a threat
of stochastic extinction, over-collecting, and/or reduced reproductive
vigor (Hara and Beardsley 1979; HHP 1991o1, 1991o2; Medeiros et al.
1986).
Knudsen sent a plant specimen he found at Waimea to Hillebrand, who
named it Pelea knudsenii in honor of its collector (Hillebrand 1888).
In an action that was not supported by other taxonomists, Emmanuel
Drake del Castillo (1890) transferred several species from the genus
Pelea to the genus Evodia. Hartley and Stone (1989) synonymized the
genus Pelea with Melicope, resulting in the combination M. knudsenii.
Other names now included in M. knudsenii are Pelea multiflora (Rock
1911), P. knudsenii var. multiflora (Rock 1918), and P. tomentosa (St.
John 1944).
Melicope knudsenii, a member of the citrus family, is a tree
usually 10 to 33 ft (3 to 10 m) tall with smooth gray bark and
yellowish brown to olive-brown hairs on the tips of the branches.
Leaves are variable, ranging from oblong to elliptic, 3.5 to 9.8 in (9
to 25 cm) long and 1.8 to 3.9 in (4.5 to 10 cm) wide. The lower surface
of the leaves is uniformly covered with olive-brown hairs, but the
upper surface is only sparsely hairy along the midrib. The densely
hairy flowers are bisexual or may be unisexual. There are usually 20 to
200 flowers per cluster in the leaf axils. The sepals and petals are
covered with silky gray hairs and the sepals persist in fruit. The
fruits are 0.7 to 1.2 in (18 to 30 mm) wide and are comprised of
distinct follicles, 0.3 to 0.6 in (8 to 14 mm) long. The hairless
exocarp is dotted with minute glands. The endocarp also lacks hairs.
Seeds number one or two per carpel (ovule-bearing structure) and are
about 0.2 in (5 to 6 mm) long. The distinct carpels of the fruit, the
hairless endocarp, the larger number of flowers per cluster, and the
distribution of hairs on the underside of the leaves distinguish this
species from M. haupuensis and other species of the genus (Degener et
al. 1962a, 1962b; Hillebrand 1888; Rock 1913; Stone 1969; Stone et al.
1990).
Historically, Melicope knudsenii was known only from the southeast
slope of Haleakala on Maui and from Olokele Canyon on Kauai (HHP
1991p1, 1991p5). This species remains in the Auwahi and Kanaio areas of
Maui (R. Hobdy and Arthur Medeiros, Haleakala National Park, pers.
comms., 1991) on privately owned land, but its numbers have decreased
considerably from being ``very common'' in 1920 to between 20 and 30
plants when it was last observed in 1983 (CPC 1990; HHP 1991p1). On
Kauai, three populations, each consisting of one individual, remain on
State land in the Koaie drainage area of Waimea Canyon (HHP 1991p2 to
1991p4; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991) and are distributed across a
distance of 1.6 mi (2.6 km). This species, therefore, totals between 23
and 33 individuals at present. Melicope knudsenii grows on forested
flats or talus slopes in lowland dry to mesic forests at an elevation
of about 1,500 to 3,300 ft (450 to 1,000 m) (Stone et al. 1990). The
Auwahi population on Maui, however, grows on a substrate of 'a'a lava
in a remnant native forest, dominated by a continuous mat of Pennisetum
clandestinum (Kikuyu grass) (HHP 1991p1; Medeiros et al. 1986). Plants
associated with the Kauai populations include 'a'ali'i, hame, 'ohi'a,
and Xylosma (HHP 1991p3, 1991p4).
Competition with alien plant taxa and habitat degradation by feral
and domestic animals are the major threats affecting Melicope
knudsenii. On Kauai, this species competes with lantana and is affected
by feral goats and pigs. On Maui, Melicope knudsenii grows in an area
currently grazed by domestic cattle, where a continuous mat of Kikuyu
grass prevents seedlings from establishing. Feral goats and feral pigs
are also present in the area of the Maui population. Axis deer (Axis),
found on the south slope of Haleakala Mountain and increasing in
numbers, are a potential threat. This species is potentially threatened
by black twig borer, a ubiquitous insect that lives at elevations up to
2,500 ft (670 m) in Hawaii and is known to infest members of Melicope.
This species is also threatened by fire, stochastic extinction, and/or
reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing
individuals (HHP 1991p2 to 1991p4; Hara and Beardsley 1979; Medeiros et
al. 1986; van Riper and van Riper 1982; Patrick Beil, Puu Mahoe
Arboretum, R. Hobdy, A. Medeiros, and Steve Montgomery, Bishop Museum,
pers. comms., 1991).
Hillebrand (1888) described Pelea pallida based on a specimen he
collected on Oahu. The specific epithet refers to the plant's pale leaf
veins and lower leaf surfaces. Drake del Castillo (1890) transferred
the species to the genus Evodia, a combination not accepted by other
taxonomists. Faurie described P. leveillei in 1912 based on a specimen
collected on Kauai (Stone 1969). Following the transfer of the genus
Pelea to Melicope (Hartley and Stone 1989, Wagner et al. 1990), authors
of the current treatment of the Hawaiian members of the genus (Stone et
al. 1990) now consider Evodia pallida, P. pallida, and P. leveillei to
be synonyms of Melicope pallida.
Melicope pallida, a member of the citrus family, is a 20 to 33 ft
(6 to 10 m) tree with grayish white hairs and black, resinous new
growth. The leaves, 2.4 to 8.3 in (6 to 21 cm) long and 1 to 3.1 in
(2.5 to 8 cm) wide, are grouped in threes, with each leaf loosely
folded. Fifteen to 35 pale yellowish-green flowers are also clustered
in groups of 3 along a fuzzy white stalk up to 2.4 in (6 cm) long. The
petals are usually lance-shaped and measure 0.1 to 0.2 in (3.5 to 5 mm)
long. Fruits contain two shiny black seeds about 0.1 in (3.5 mm) long
in each of the usually four distinct carpels. This species differs from
M. haupuensis, M. knudsenii, and other members of the genus by the
following combination of characteristics: Resinous new growth; leaves
folded and in clusters of three; and fruits with separate carpels
(Degener et al. 1960, Hillebrand 1888, St. John 1944, Stone et al.
1990, Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Melicope pallida was known from various locations in
the Waianae Mountains on Oahu and from Hanapepe on Kauai (HHP 1991q2 to
1991q4, 1991q7). This species is now known from two locations at the
base of Mount Kaala and near Palikea, within TNCH's privately owned
Honouliuli Preserve in the Waianae Mountains on Oahu, and from four
State owned locations on Kauai in Kalalau Valley, Koaie Stream in
Waimea Canyon, and Hanakapiai Valley (HHP 1991q1, 1991q6, 1991q8; HPCC
1991g1, 1991g2; T. Flynn, J. Lau, and S. Montgomery, pers. comms.,
1991). The population near Palikea was last visited in 1960 (HHP
1991q1); it is thought to contain only a few plants. Fewer than five
plants are known from the island of Oahu (S. Montgomery, pers. comm.,
1991). Populations were discovered in 1991 near the rim of Kalalau
Valley (about 65 plants) and Honopu Rim (12 plants) (Kenneth Wood,
HPCC, pers. comm., 1991), giving a total of less than 100 known plants
for this species. Melicope pallida usually grows on steep rock faces in
drier regions of lowland mesic forests at an elevation of 1,600 to over
3,000 ft (490 to 910 m) (Stone et al. 1990; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1991;
D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). Associated plant taxa include
Abutilon sandwicense, Alyxia oliviformis (maile), Dryopteris sp.,
'ohi'a, Pipturus albidus (mamaki), Sapindus oahuensis (lonomea),
Tetraplasandra sp. ('ohe), and Xylosma hawaiiense (mana) (HHP 1991q1,
1991q5, 1991q8; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1991).
The major threats to Melicope pallida are habitat destruction by
feral animals and competition with alien plant taxa. On Kauai, feral
goats and feral pigs destroy habitat of Melicope pallida and weeds,
such as daisy fleabane and prickly Florida blackberry, compete with the
species. The Oahu populations of Melicope pallida face strong
competition from introduced plants, especially Clidemia hirta (Koster's
curse) and Toona ciliata (Australian red cedar). A potential threat to
Melicope pallida is the black twig borer, which is known to occur in
areas where this species grows and to feed on members of the genus
Melicope. Additional threats to Melicope pallida are fire and
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals (Hara and Beardsley 1979; HHP
1991q6, 1991q8; Medeiros et al. 1986; T. Flynn, J. Lau, S. Montgomery,
and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991).
St. John and Edward P. Hume described Melicope quadrangularis,
based on a specimen collected by Forbes on Kauai in 1909 (St. John
1944). The specific epithet, meaning ``four-angled,'' describes the
cube-shaped capsule. Hartley and Stone (1989) synonymized the genus
Pelea with Melicope, resulting in the combination M. quadrangularis.
Melicope quadrangularis, a member of the citrus family, is a shrub
or small tree. Young branches are generally covered with fine yellow
fuzz but become hairless with age. The thin, leathery, elliptical
leaves, 3.5 to 6 in (9.5 to 16 cm) long and 2 to 3 in (4.5 to 7.5 cm)
wide, are oppositely arranged. The upper leaf surface is hairless and
the lower surface is sparsely hairy, especially along the veins.
Flowers are solitary or in clusters of two. The specific floral details
are not known. The fruits are somewhat cube-shaped, flattened capsules,
about 0.5 in (13 mm) long and about 0.8 in (19 to 22 mm) wide with a
conspicuous central depression at the top of the fruit. The capsules
are four-lobed and completely fused. The exocarp is sparsely hairy and
the endocarp is hairless. This species differs from others in the genus
in having the following combination of characters: Oppositely arranged
leaves; only one or two flowers per cluster; cube-shaped capsules with
fused lobes; and a deep central depression at the top of the fruit (St.
John 1944, Stone 1969, Stone et al. 1990).
Melicope quadrangularis is known from the type locality in the
Wahiawa Bog region of Kauai (HHP 1991r1; Stone et al. 1990). One adult
plant and two seedlings were discovered in 1991 in that area by Ken
Wood of HPCC on an east-facing slope of Wahiawa Ridge at 2,800 ft (850
m) elevation on privately owned land. Subsequent exploration has
resulted in the location of 13 individuals of this species. The plants
are growing in a diverse lowland forest that ranges from mesic to wet
conditions with other plants, such as 'ohi'a, opuhe, uluhe, Broussaisia
arguta (kanawao), Cyrtandra pickeringii (ha'iwale), other Melicope
species (alani), Metrosideros waialealae, and abundant ferns and mosses
(K. Wood, pers. comm., 1991, D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991).
The existence of only 13 known plants of this species causes the
species to be threatened by over-collecting for scientific purposes,
stochastic extinction, and/or reduced reproductive vigor. The alien
strawberry guava grows in the area and is a potential threat (Hara and
Beardsley 1979; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in
litt., 1991).
Forbes collected specimens of a tree on Kauai in 1916 that he
described the following year (1917b) as Tetraplasandra racemosa. The
specific epithet describes the inflorescence that Forbes considered a
raceme. Sherff (1952) transferred the species to the new endemic,
monotypic genus Munroidendron, named in honor of George C. Munro, who
was apparently the first to recognize the plant as a new taxon. Sherff
(1952) also published two varieties, Munroidendron racemosum var.
forbesii and M. racemosum var. macdanielsii. In the current treatment
of the species, Porter P. Lowrey II (1990) recognizes no subspecific
taxa.
Munroidendron racemosum, a member of the ginseng family
(Araliaceae), is a tree up to about 23 ft (7 m) in height with a
straight gray trunk crowned with spreading branches. The leaves are 6
to 12 in (15 to 30 cm) long and comprise five to nine oval or
elliptical leaflets with clasping leaf stalks. Each leaflet is 3.1 to
6.7 in (8 to 17 cm) long and usually 1.6 to 3.9 in (4 to 10 cm) wide.
About 250 pale yellow flowers are borne along a stout hanging stalk 10
to 24 in (25 to 60 cm) long. Each flower has five or six lance-shaped
petals 0.3 to 0.4 in (8 to 10 mm) long emerging from a cup-shaped or
ellipsoid calyx tube. Both the lower surface of the petals and the
calyx tube are covered with whitish scaly hairs. The fruit is an egg-
shaped drupe 0.3 to 0.5 in (8 to 12 mm) long and nearly as wide,
situated atop a flat, dark red disk (stylopodium). This species is the
only member of a genus endemic to Hawaii, differing from other closely
related Hawaiian genera of the family primarily in its distinct flower
clusters and corolla (Forbes 1917b, Lamoureux 1982, Lowrey 1990, St.
John 1981b, Sherff 1952).
Historically, Munroidendron racemosum was known from scattered
locations throughout the island of Kauai (HHP 1991s1, 1991s3, 1991s6,
1991s13). Fifteen populations are now found at elevations of 390 to
1,310 ft (120 to 400 m) on private and State land in the following
areas: Along the Na Pali Coast within Na Pali Coast State Park and Hono
O Na Pali NAR; in the Poomau and Koaie branches of Waimea Canyon; in
the Haupu Range area; and on Nounou Mountain (HHP 1991s1 to 1991s12,
1991s14, 1991s15; Lamoureux 1982). Although widely distributed, the
largest population contains fewer than 50 individuals, with most
populations numbering only 1 or 2 individuals. Estimates of the total
number of individuals range from 57 to 100 (HHP 1991s1 to 1991s15).
Most populations are found on steep exposed cliffs or on ridge slopes
in coastal to lowland mesic forests (Lowrey 1990), but a few
populations are in mesic Pandanus tectorius (hala) forests, lantana-
dominated shrubland, or Eragrostis grassland. Other associated plant
taxa include common guava, kopiko, kukui, and lama (Gagne and Cuddihy
1990; HHP 1991s1, 1991s3 to 1991s5, 1991s8 to 1991s11, 1991s15;
Lamoureux 1982).
Competition with introduced plants is the major threat to
Munroidendron racemosum. Kukui and ti, plants introduced by Polynesian
immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, compete with this species for space
in the forests of Kauai. Other introduced plants threatening this
species' habitat include Chinaberry, common guava, firetree, koa haole,
lantana, and Triumfetta semitriloba (Sacramento bur). Feral goats
degrade the habitat of Munroidendron and cattle were formerly present
in areas where the trees grow. Fire is a threat to the habitat.
Predation of the fruit by rats is probable. An introduced insect of the
longhorned beetle family (Cerambycidae) that killed a mature,
cultivated tree has the potential of affecting wild trees. Because each
population of this species contains only one or a few trees, the total
number of individuals is small, threatening the species through over-
collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes, stochastic
extinction, and/or reduced reproductive vigor (HHP 1991s1, 1991s3 to
1991s5, 1991s8 to 1991s11, 1991s15; HPCC 1990h; Lamoureux 1982).
First collected on Kauai before 1900, Nothocestrum peltatum was
described by Carl J. F. Skottsberg in 1944, based on a specimen
collected by Olof H. Selling in 1938. The specific epithet refers to
the peltate leaves, attached to the stalk by the lower surface, inside
the leaf margin rather than at its edge. St. John (1986) later
described N. inconcinnum, but David E. Symon (1990), in the currently
accepted treatment of the genus, regards that name as a synonym of N.
peltatum.
Nothocestrum peltatum, a member of the nightshade family
(Solanaceae), is a small tree up to 26 ft (8 m) tall with ash-brown
bark and woolly stems. The leathery leaves are usually peltate, measure
2.4 to 9.1 in (6 to 23 cm) long and 1.4 to 3 in (3.5 to 7.5 cm) wide
and vary in shape from oval or elliptic to oblong. The densely hairy
flowers number up to 10 per cluster. The corolla is greenish yellow
fading to yellow orange and 0.5 to 0.6 in (12 to 14 mm) long. The
orange berries are 0.5 to 0.6 in (13 to 14 mm) long and contain
numerous irregularly shaped seeds about 0.1 in (2.5 mm) in diameter.
The usually peltate leaves and shorter leaf stalks separate this
species from others in the genus (St. John 1986, Selling 1947,
Skottsberg 1944, Symon 1990).
Historically, Nothocestrum peltatum was known from Kauai at
Kumuwela, Kaholuamanu, and the region of Nualolo (HHP 1991t3, 1991t5,
1991t6). This species is now known from five populations on Kauai
located near the Kalalau Lookout area, in Awaawapuhi and Makaha
Valleys, and in Waimea Canyon (HHP 1991t1, 1991t2, 1991t4, 1991t7; HPCC
1990i1, 1990i2, 1990i4; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991, 1993), scattered
over a 5.5 by 2.5 mi (8.9 by 4 km) area. These populations, totalling
about 15 individuals (CPC 1989b, 1990; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1993),
are on State owned land between 3,000 and 4,000 ft (915 and 1,220 m)
elevation (Symon 1990). This species generally grows in rich soil on
steep slopes in montane mesic forests dominated by koa or a mixture of
'ohi'a and koa, with associates such as hame, uluhe, Bobea brevipes
('ahakea lau li'i), Elaeocarpus bifidus (kalia), and more common
Melicope species (alani) (HHP 1991t1, 1991t7; Sohmer and Gustafson
1987; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1991).
Competition with alien plants and habitat degradation by introduced
animals constitute the major threats to Nothocestrum peltatum.
Introduced plants competing with this species include banana poka,
daisy fleabane, lantana, prickly Florida blackberry, and Passiflora
edulis (passion fruit). Animals disturbing the habitat of this species
include feral goats, feral pigs, mule deer, and red jungle fowl (Gallus
gallus). Although plants of this species flower, they rarely set fruit;
this could be the result of a loss of pollinators, reduced genetic
variability, or self-incompatibility (S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991; D.
Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). This species is threatened by fire,
over-collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes, stochastic
extinction, and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number
of existing individuals (HHP 1991t7; HPCC 1990i3, 1990i4).
Hillebrand (1888) described Peucedanum sandwicense based on a
specimen collected on Molokai and P. kauaiense based on a specimen
collected on Kauai. He also referred to an unnamed variety of P.
sandwicense from Maui. Otto and Isa Degener (1960) later named the Maui
plant P. sandwicense var. hiroi. In their current treatment, Lincoln
Constance and James Affolter (1990) recognize only P. sandwicense for
all populations of the genus in the Hawaiian Islands.
Peucedanum sandwicense, a member of the parsley family (Apiaceae),
is a parsley-scented, sprawling herb usually 20 to 40 in (0.5 to 1 m)
tall. Hollow stems arise from a short, vertical, perennial stem with
several fleshy roots. The compound leaves are generally three-parted
with stalkless leaflets, each egg- or lance-shaped and toothed. The
larger terminal leaflet is usually one- to three-lobed and 2.8 to 5.1
in (7 to 13 cm) long. The other leaflets have leaf stalks 4 to 20 in
(10 to 50 cm) long or are stalkless. Flowers are clustered in a
compound umbel of 10 to 20 flowers. The round petals are white and bent
inward at the tips. The flat, dry, oval fruits are 0.4 to 0.5 in (10 to
13 mm) long and 0.2 to 0.3 in (5 to 8 mm) wide, splitting in half to
release a single flat seed. This species is the only member of the
genus in the Hawaiian Islands, one of three genera of the family with
taxa endemic to the island of Kauai. This species differs from the
other Kauai members of the parsley family in having larger fruit and
pinnately compound leaves with broad leaflets (Constance and Affolter
1990, Degener and Constance 1959, Degener and Degener 1960, Hillebrand
1888).
Historically, Peucedanum sandwicense was known from three islands:
Kalaupapa, Pauonuakea Kui, Waikolu, and Wailau Valley on Molokai;
Wailuku and Waiehu on Maui; and various locations in the Waimea Canyon
and Olokele regions of Kauai (HHP 1991u1, 1991u2, 1991u4, 1991u7,
1991u9 to 1991u12; HPCC 1991h1, 1991h2). Discoveries in 1990 extended
the known distribution of this species to the island of Oahu, where 2
populations totalling about 85 individuals exist in the Waianae
Mountains on County and State land (J. Lau, in litt. and pers. comm.,
1991; J. Obata, pers. comm., 1990). One population of 20 to 30
individuals is known from State owned Keopuka Rock, an islet off the
coast of Maui (HHP 1991u8; Hobdy 1982; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1991). On
Molokai, 3 populations totalling fewer than 30 individuals are found on
private and State owned land in Pelekunu Preserve, Kalaupapa National
Historical Park, and Huelo, an islet off the coast of Molokai (HHP
1991u7, 1991u16, 1991u20; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991). The 10 Kauai
populations of 130 to 190 individuals are distributed in Waimea Canyon
and along the Na Pali Coast within 1.5 mi (2.4 km) of the ocean (HHP
1991u1, 1991u3, 1991u5, 1991u6, 1991u13 to 1991u15, 1991u17 to 1991u19;
T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991). These populations are found within a 7 by
8 mi (11 by 13 km) area on private and State land. The total number of
plants in the known populations of this species is estimated to exceed
1,000 and possibly 5,000 individuals (CPC 1992; S. Perlman, pers.
comm., 1993). This species grows in cliff habitats from sea level to
above 3,000 ft (900 m) (Constance and Affolter 1990) with such plant
associates as 'akoko, kawelu, lama, 'ohi'a, Artemisia australis
('ahinahina), and alien species such as common guava and lantana (HHP
1991u1 to 1991u3, 1991u5 to 1991u8, 1991u14 to 1991u18, 1991u20; J.
Lau, in litt. and pers. comm., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt.,
1991).
Competition with introduced plants and habitat degradation and
browsing by feral goats are the major threats to Peucedanum
sandwicense. Kauai populations are affected by alien plant species such
as Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), banana poka, common guava, daisy
fleabane, firetree, introduced grasses, Java plum, and lantana, as well
as by feral goats. The Hanakapiai population on Kauai is close enough
to the trail that it is potentially affected by hikers and trail
clearing. Oahu populations are threatened by alien plants such as
Christmas berry, common guava, daisy fleabane, Hamakua pamakani, silk
oak, and Stachytarpheta; feral goats; fire; and landslides. The
Kalaupapa, Molokai, population of P. sandwicense competes with
Christmas berry, common guava, and molasses grass. The Pelekunu,
Molokai, population is threatened by common guava, Hamakua pamakani,
Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani), and potentially by axis deer.
Plants of this species on Huelo are vulnerable to natural rock slides.
The population on Keopuka Rock is threatened by alien grasses, lantana,
and sourbush (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980; HHP 1991u1, 1991u3, 1991u5,
1991u15, 1991u16; HPCC 1990j1 to 1990j3; R. Hobdy, J. Lau, J. Obata,
and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991).
Peucedanum sandwicense is not in immediate danger of extinction,
but if these threats are not curtailed, this species will become
endangered in the future.
Wawra collected a specimen of Phyllostegia waimeae on Kauai in 1870
while he was a member of the Austrian East Asiatic Exploring
Expedition. In 1872, he described the species, naming it for Waimea
Canyon where he collected it. St. John (1987c) recently published many
species, varieties, and combinations in Phyllostegia, one or more of
which may fit into this species (Wagner et al. 1990).
Phyllostegia waimeae, a nonaromatic member of the mint family
(Lamiaceae), is a climbing perennial plant with hairy four-angled stems
that are woody at the base. The oval leaves are 2 to 5 in (5 to 13 cm)
long, 1 to 2.4 in (2.5 to 6 cm) wide, and have rounded, toothed
margins. They are wrinkled and sparsely dotted with oil glands. Flowers
grow in groups of six along an unbranched leafy stalk usually 3.9 to
5.9 in (10 to 15 cm) long. The bracts below each flower stalk are broad
and partially overlap the flowers. The calyx resembles an inverted cone
with broad lobes. The corolla, 0.3 to 0.5 in (8 to 12 mm) long, is
pinkish or may be white. The fruits, probably nutlets, have not been
observed. Characteristics that distinguish this species from others in
the genus are the nearly stalkless bracts that partially overlap and
cover the flowers and relatively fewer oil glands on the leaves
(Hillebrand 1888, Sherff 1935a, Wagner et al. 1990, Wawra 1872).
Historically, Phyllostegia waimeae was known from Kaholuamanu and
Kaaha on Kauai (HHP 1991v2, 1991v3). In recent years, it is known from
State land on Kauai in the Halemanu and Waimea Canyon areas (HHP
1991v1, 1991v4). Because the Halemanu population has not been seen for
almost 40 years (HHP 1991v1), the number of extant individuals is
unknown. The Waimea Canyon population consists of a single plant which
has not been observed recently (R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1991; S.
Perlman, pers. comm., 1993). This species typically grows on shallow to
deep, well-drained soils in clearings (HHP 1991v1) or along the banks
of streams of diverse montane mesic to wet forests at elevations from
3,000 to 3,600 ft (915 m to 1,100 m) (Wagner et al. 1990). Associated
taxa include 'ohi'a and Pritchardia minor (loulu) (HHP 1991v4).
Habitat destruction by feral goats, erosion, and competition with
introduced grasses are the major threats to Phyllostegia waimeae. The
species is also threatened by over-collecting for scientific purposes,
stochastic extinction, and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals (R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1991).
Based on a specimen collected by Duvel and Harold L. Lyon in 1925,
Edward L. Caum (1933) described Pteralyxia kauaiensis, named for the
island where it grows. St. John (1981a) later published P. elliptica,
but the authors of the current treatment of the genus (Wagner et al.
1990) regard that name to be synonymous with P. kauaiensis.
Pteralyxia kauaiensis, a member of the dogbane family
(Apocynaceae), is a tree 10 to 26 ft (3 to 8 m) tall. The leaves are
dark green and shiny on the upper surfaces but pale and dull on the
lower surfaces. They are generally egg-shaped and usually 4.3 to 8.7 in
(11 to 22 cm) long and 1.6 to 2.6 in (40 to 65 mm) wide. The pale
yellow flowers are trumpet-shaped, 0.3 to 0.5 in (8 to 12 mm) long,
with each of the five lobes 0.1 to 0.2 in (3 to 4 mm) long. The paired
fruits, of which usually only one matures, are drupe-like, bright red,
and fleshy. The woody endocarp that encloses the single seed has two
prominent central wings and two reduced lateral wings. This species
differs from the only other taxa in this endemic Hawaiian genus in
having reduced lateral wings on the seed (Caum 1933; Degener 1933,
1936; Lamb 1981; St. John 1981a; Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Pteralyxia kauaiensis was known from the Wahiawa
Mountains in the southern portion of Kauai (HHP 1991w8). This species
is now known from the following scattered locations on private and
State land on Kauai at elevations between 820 and 2,000 ft (250 and 610
m) (Wagner et al. 1990): Mahanaloa-Kuia Valley in Kuia NAR; Haeleele
Valley; Na Pali Coast State Park; Limahuli Valley; the Koaie branch of
Waimea Canyon; Haupu Range; Wailua River; and Moloaa Forest Reserve
(HHP 1991w1 to 1991w7, 1991w9, 1991w10, 1991w11; HPCC 1990k1; HPCC
1991j1, 1991j2; T. Flynn and S. Montgomery, pers. comms., 1991). There
is an undocumented sighting of one individual at Makaleha, above the
town of Kapaa (T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991). The 13 known populations,
totaling 170 to 300 individuals, typically grow on the sides of gulches
in diverse lowland mesic forests and sometimes lowland wet forests
(Wagner et al. 1990). Associated plant taxa include hame, lama,
lantana, 'ohi'a, and Pouteria sandwicensis ('ala'a) (Degener 1936; HHP
1991w1 to 1991w7, 1991w10; D. Herbst, pers. comm., 1991).
The major threats to Pteralyxia kauaiensis are habitat destruction
by feral animals and competition with introduced plants. Animals
affecting the survival of this species include feral goats, feral pigs,
and possibly rats, which may eat the fruits. Fire and over-collecting
for scientific purposes could threaten some populations. Introduced
plants competing with this species include common guava, daisy
fleabane, kukui, lantana, strawberry guava, and ti (HHP 1991w1, 1991w4,
1991w5, 1991w7; HPCC 1990k1, 1990k2; T. Flynn and S. Perlman, pers.
comms., 1991).
Gray (1854) described Schiedea spergulina based on a specimen
collected in 1840 on Kauai during the United States Exploring
Expedition. The specific epithet means ``resembling Spergula,'' another
genus in the same plant family. Two varieties of S. spergulina are
recognized in the current treatment of the genus (Wagner et al. 1990).
The typical variety, which includes var. degeneriana, was named by
Sherff (1956) and var. leiopoda (Sherff 1944), which includes var.
major, was also named by Sherff (1944).
Schiedea spergulina, a member of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae),
is a 1 to 2 ft (30 to 60 cm) tall subshrub. The opposite leaves are
very narrow, usually 1.2 to 2.6 in (30 to 65 mm) long and about 0.04 in
(1.4 mm) wide, one-veined, and attached directly to the stem. The
flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers on different
plants. Flowers occur in compact clusters of three. The sepals usually
number five and are green and purple-tinged, 0.08 to 0.13 in (2 to 3.3
mm) long. The capsular fruits are about 0.08 to 0.12 in (2 to 3 mm)
long and contain nearly smooth, kidney-shaped seeds. Of the 22 species
in this endemic genus, only 2 other species have smooth seeds. This
species differs from those two in having very compact flower clusters.
The two weakly defined varieties differ primarily in the degree of
hairiness (Heller 1897; Hillebrand 1888; Sherff 1944, 1945; Wagner et
al. 1990).
Historically, Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda was found on a
ridge on the east side of Hanapepe on Kauai (HHP 1991x1). One
population of 50 to 100 individuals of this variety is now known to
grow in Lawai Valley on Kauai on privately owned land (HHP 1991x2; HPCC
1991k; T. Flynn, J. Lau, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). Schiedea
spergulina var. spergulina is more numerous, once found in Olokele
Canyon but now known from Kalalau Rim and four locations in Waimea
Canyon on State land (HHP 1991y1 to 1991y5). One population contains
only five plants, whereas others number in the thousands. However,
these populations are estimated to total no more than 5,000 individuals
(HHP 1991y1 to 1991y5; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991; S. Perlman, pers.
comm., 1993). This taxon is usually found on bare rock outcrops or
sparsely vegetated portions of rocky cliff faces or cliff bases in
diverse lowland mesic forests at elevations between 590 and 3,000 ft
(180 and 800 m) (Wagner et al. 1990). Plants associated with the Lawai
population of S. spergulina var. leiopoda are Bidens sandvicensis
(ko'oko'olau), Doryopteris (kumuniu), Peperomia leptostachya, and
Plectranthus parviflorus ('ala'ala wai nui) (T. Flynn and J. Lau, pers.
comms., 1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). Plant taxa associated
with S. spergulina var. spergulina include 'ahinahina, Chinaberry,
lantana, Sacramento bur, and Nototrichium sandwicense (kulu'i) (HHP
1991y5, Sherff 1956).
The major threats to Schiedea spergulina are habitat destruction by
feral goats and competition with introduced plants. Variety leiopoda is
threatened by competition with alien plant taxa such as koa haole,
lantana, and Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp), and individuals are
also damaged and destroyed by rock slides. This variety is potentially
threatened by pesticide use in nearby sugarcane fields. This variety is
threatened by stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor
due to the small number of existing individuals (CPC 1990; D. Lorence,
T. Flynn, pers. comms., 1991). Variety spergulina is threatened by
competition with alien taxa, including daisy fleabane and lantana. The
area in which this variety grows is used heavily by feral goats and
there is evidence that plants are being browsed and trampled (HHP
1991y2, 1991y5; T. Flynn, J. Lau, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991;
D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991).
The intensity of threats and small number of populations known for
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda indicate that this taxon is in
serious danger of extinction. Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina has
significantly more individuals and populations and is facing less
intense threats since it is found on more protected cliffs. However,
while the latter taxon is not now in danger of extinction, if these
threats are not curtailed, the taxon will become endangered in the
future.
William Jackson Hooker and G.A.W. Arnott (1830-1841) described
Solanum sandwicense based on a specimen collected in 1826 or 1827 on
Oahu during the voyage of H.M.S. Blossom. The plant was named for the
Sandwich Islands, an older name for the Hawaiian Islands. Other names
by which portions of this species have been known include S.
hillebrandii (St. John 1969a), S. kauaiense (Hillebrand 1888), S.
sandwicense var.? kavaiense (Gray 1862), S. woahense (Symon 1990), and
S. woahense var. eroso-crenulatum (Symon 1990). In the current
treatment of this genus, Symon (1990) considers the Oahu and Kauai
populations as Solanum sandwicense and recognizes no subspecific taxa.
Solanum sandwicense, a member of the nightshade family, is a large
sprawling shrub that grows up to 13 ft (4 m) tall. The younger branches
are more densely hairy than older branches. The oval leaves are usually
4 to 6 in (10 to 15 cm) long and 2 to 5.5 in (5 to 14 cm) wide and have
up to four lobes along the margins. Leaf stalks are 0.8 to 1.6 in (2 to
4 cm) long. On the flowering stem, a few to as many as 40 flowers are
grouped in threes, with each flower on a stalk about 0.6 in (15 mm)
long, bent at the end so that the flower faces downward. The corolla is
white with a faint purplish stripe, each lobe is curved somewhat
backward. Stamens are attached low on the corolla tube, with anthers
curved inward. The fruit is a berry 0.5 to 0.6 in (13 to 15 mm) in
diameter, black when ripe. This species differs from others of the
genus in having dense hairs on young plant parts, a greater height, and
its lack of prickles (Gray 1862, St. John 1969a, Sohmer and Gustafson
1987, Symon 1990).
Historically, Solanum sandwicense was known from widely scattered
populations throughout the Waianae Mountains and southern portions of
the Koolau Mountains on Oahu (HHP 1991z1 to 1991z5, 1991z7 to 1991z10).
On Kauai, this species was known from locations in the Kokee region
bounded by Kalalau Valley to the north, Milolii Ridge to the west, and
Kawaikoi to the east, extending southward to the Hanapepe River (HHP
1991z13 to 1991z17, 1991z21, 1991z22, 1991z24). On Oahu, this species
is known from a single population on privately owned land in what is
now Honouliuli Preserve (HPCC 1991l). One other recent population was
destroyed by a landslide in 1986 (HHP 1991z6; J. Obata, pers. comm.,
1991; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). The Kauai populations are on
private and State land and most are from Kokee and Na Pali Coast State
Parks. Of the 12 known populations, only 4 are currently extant; they
total about 20 plants (Bruegmann 1990; CPC 1990; HHP 1991z11, 1991z12,
1991z19, 1991z20, 1991z26; D. Herbst, pers. comm., 1991; S. Perlman,
pers. comm., 1993). This species is typically found in open, sunny
areas at elevations between 2,500 and 4,000 ft (760 and 1,220 m) in
diverse lowland to montane mesic forests and occasionally in wet
forests (HHP 1991z1, 1991z11, 1991z16, 1991z19 to 1991z26; Symon 1990).
Associated plant taxa include koa, 'ohi'a, uluhe, and wet forest plants
such as kopiko, ho'i'o, and more common Melicope species (alani) (HHP
1991z11, 1991z18, 1991z20, 1991z26).
The major threats to populations of Solanum sandwicense on Kauai
are habitat degradation by feral pigs and competition with alien plant
taxa. Alien taxa that have heavily invaded this species' habitat on
Kauai include banana poka, prickly Florida blackberry, strawberry
guava, Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili ginger), and Lonicera japonica
(Japanese honeysuckle). This species is also threatened by fire, over-
collecting for scientific purposes, stochastic extinction, and/or
reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing
individuals. All Oahu populations of Solanum sandwicense except one are
now apparently extinct, the result of its habitat being destroyed by
urbanization, landslides, feral pigs, and weedy alien taxa (Bruegmann
1990; HHP 1991z1 to 1991z7, 1991z18, 1991z25; HPCC 1990m; R. Hobdy, J.
Lau, J. Obata, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991; D. Lorence et al.,
in litt., 1991).
Previous Federal Action
Federal action on these plants began as a result of section 12 of
the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), which directed the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on plants
considered to be endangered, threatened, or extinct in the United
States. This report, designated as House Document No. 94-51, was
presented to Congress on January 9, 1975. In that document, Brighamia
insignis (as B. insignis and B. citrina var. napaliensis), Delissea
rhytidosperma, Exocarpos luteolus, Hibiscus clayi (as H. clayi and H.
newhousei), Lipochaeta fauriei, Lipochaeta micrantha (as L. exigua),
Melicope haupuensis (as Pelea haupuensis), Melicope knudsenii (as Pelea
multiflora), Melicope pallida (as Pelea pallida and P. leveillei),
Melicope quadrangularis (as Pelea quadrangularis), Nothocestrum
peltatum, Peucedanum sandwicense (as P. kauaiense), Pteralyxia
kauaiensis, and Solanum sandwicense were considered to be endangered.
Diellia pallida (as D. laciniata), Lipochaeta fauriei, Lipochaeta
micrantha, Lipochaeta waimeaensis, Lysimachia filifolia, and Solanum
sandwicense (as S. kauaiense) were considered to be threatened.
Hedyotis cookiana, Melicope knudsenii (as Pelea knudsenii and P.
tomentosa), Munroidendron racemosum (as M. racemosum var.
macdanielsii), and Solanum sandwicense (as S. hillebrandii) were
considered to be extinct.
On July 1, 1975, the Service published a notice in the Federal
Register (40 FR 27823) of its acceptance of the Smithsonian report as a
petition within the context of section 4(c)(2) (now section 4(b)(3)) of
the Act, and giving notice of its intention to review the status of the
plant species named therein. As a result of that review, on June 16,
1976, the Service published a proposed rule in the Federal Register (41
FR 24523) to determine endangered status pursuant to section 4 of the
Act for approximately 1,700 vascular plant species, including all of
the above species considered to be endangered or thought to be extinct.
The list of 1,700 plant species was assembled on the basis of comments
and data received by the Smithsonian Institution and the Service in
response to House Document No. 94-51 and the July 1, 1975, Federal
Register publication.
General comments received in response to the 1976 proposal are
summarized in an April 26, 1978, Federal Register publication (43 FR
17909). In 1978, amendments to the Act required that all proposals over
two years old be withdrawn. A one-year grace period was given to
proposals already over two years old. On December 10, 1979, the Service
published a notice in the Federal Register (44 FR 70796) withdrawing
the portion of the June 16, 1976, proposal that had not been made
final, along with four other proposals that had expired. The Service
published updated notices of review for plants on December 15, 1980 (45
FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39525), and February 21, 1990 (55
FR 6183). In these notices, 10 of the species (including synonymous
species) that had been in the 1976 proposed rule were treated as
Category 1 candidates for Federal listing. Category 1 species are those
for which the Service has on file substantial information on biological
vulnerability and threats to support preparation of listing proposals.
Other than Diellia pallida (as D. laciniata), Hedyotis cookiana,
Lipochaeta fauriei, Lipochaeta micrantha (as L. exigua), Lysimachia
filifolia, Melicope knudsenii (as Pelea knudsenii), Melicope pallida,
M. quadrangularis, Peucedanum sandwicense, and Solanum sandwicense (as
S. hillebrandii), all the aforementioned species that were either
proposed as endangered or thought to be extinct in the June 16, 1976,
proposed rule were considered Category 1 candidates on all three
notices of review.
In the 1980 and 1985 notices, Lipochaeta fauriei, Melicope
knudsenii (as Pelea knudsenii), and Solanum sandwicense (as S.
hillebrandii) were considered Category 1* species. Category 1* species
are those that are possibly extinct. Lysimachia filifolia appeared as a
Category 2 species and Hedyotis cookiana as a Category 3A species in
the 1980 and 1985 notices. Category 2 species are those for which there
is some evidence of vulnerability, but for which there are not enough
data to support listing proposals at the time. Category 3A species are
those for which the Service has persuasive evidence of extinction.
Because new information indicated their current existence or provided
support for listing, the above five species were conferred Category 1
status in the 1990 notice. Lipochaeta exigua appeared as a Category 3B
species in the 1980 and 1985 notices; in the 1990 notice, it was
considered synonymous with L. micrantha, a Category 1 species. Category
3B species are those which, on the basis of current taxonomic
understanding, do not represent distinct taxa meeting the Act's
definition of ``species.'' Diellia pallida (as D. laciniata), Melicope
pallida, and M. quadrangularis were accorded Category 1* status in the
1990 notice, but because new information regarding their existence has
become available, they are included herein for listing. In 1980,
Peucedanum sandwicense appeared as a Category 2 species and retained
that status in the 1985 and 1990 notices. Information obtained since
the 1990 notice suggests that its numbers and distribution are
sufficiently restricted to warrant listing. Schiedea spergulina first
appeared on the 1985 notice of review as a Category 1 species. In the
1990 notice, two varieties were recognized: Variety spergulina as a
Category 1 species; and variety leiopoda as a Category 1* species for
which recently obtained information indicates that it is extant.
Cyrtandra limahuliensis first appeared in the 1990 notice of review as
Category 1 species after it was described in 1987. The 1990 notice also
recognized Cyanea asarifolia and Phyllostegia waimeae as Category 1
species for the first time.
Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires the Secretary to make
findings on certain pending petitions within 12 months of their
receipt. Section 2(b)(1) of the 1982 amendments further requires all
petitions pending on October 13, 1982, be treated as having been newly
submitted on that date. On October 13, 1983, the Service found that the
petitioned listing of these species was warranted, but precluded by
other pending listing actions, in accordance with section
4(b)(3)(B)(iii) of the Act; notification of this finding was published
on January 20, 1984 (49 FR 2485). Such a finding requires the petition
to be recycled, pursuant to section 4(b)(3)(C)(i) of the Act. The
finding was reviewed in October of 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989,
and 1990. The proposed rule published on October 30, 1991 (56 FR 55862)
to list 23 plant species primarily from the island of Kauai as
endangered species constituted the final 1-year finding that was
required for the species discussed above.
Based on comments and recommendations received in response to the
proposal (see Comments and Recommendations, below), the Service now
determines 21 plant species to be endangered and 3 plant species to be
threatened with the publication of this rule. One of the species
proposed in 1991 is now being listed as two separate entities: Schiedea
spergulina var. spergulina (as threatened); and Schiedea spergulina
var. leiopoda (as endangered). This results in the apparent increase
from 23 species in the proposed rule to 24 species in the final rule.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
In the October 30, 1991, proposed rule and associated
notifications, all interested parties were requested to submit factual
reports or information that might contribute to the development of a
final listing decision. The public comment period ended on December 30,
1991. Appropriate State agencies, county governments, Federal agencies,
scientific organizations, and other interested parties were contacted
and requested to comment. A newspaper notice inviting public comment
was published in ``The Garden Island'' on November 10, 1991. Fifteen
letters of comment, including 2 from State agencies, 11 from
organizations, and 2 from individuals, were received and are discussed
below. A public hearing was requested by Kamehameha Schools/Bernice
Pauahi Bishop Estate on December 1, 1992. On January 13, 1993, the
Service published a notice (58 FR 4145) reopening the comment period
until February 20, 1993, to accommodate the requested public hearing
which was held in Kapaa, Kauai, on February 10, 1993. A newspaper
notice announcing the public hearing was published in ``The Garden
Island'' on February 10, 1993. Eleven people presented oral comments;
their testimony is included in the following summary.
Two respondents acknowledged receipt of the proposed rule but had
no comments. Of the remaining 13 letters, 7 supported the listing of
these taxa from the island of Kauai and 6 opposed 1 or more of the
listings. Additional information included in the letters has been
incorporated into this final rule. Comments of similar content were
grouped into a number of general issues for discussion. These issues
and the Service's response to each are discussed below.
Issue 1: Status of Cyrtandra limahuliensis: Two respondents stated
that more populations of Cyrtandra limahuliensis exist than were
discussed in the proposed rule and that there is a good possibility
that more populations await discovery. One respondent asked whether
this species should still be considered endangered, while the second
stated that this species does not warrant listing as endangered.
Response: At the time the proposed rule was written, only 9
populations of Cyrtandra limahuliensis were known; however, 3
additional populations were subsequently discovered in Waioli Valley,
bringing the total number of plants to 2,800 to 3,000 (D. Lorence, in
litt., 1993). This information has been included in the final rule.
Based on additional information, the Service determines that Cyrtandra
limahuliensis is not now in danger of extinction, but that Cyrtandra
limahuliensis is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future
if the threats posed by competition from alien species are not curbed.
Thus, Cyrtandra limahuliensis is designated a threatened species.
Issue 2: Status of Peucedanum sandwicense: One respondent stated
that more populations of Peucedanum sandwicense exist than were
discussed in the proposed rule and that this species is not immediately
threatened with extinction. The proposed rule indicated that only 16
populations of the species were known, 2 on Oahu, 3 on Molokai, 10 on
Kauai, and 1 on Maui. Additional populations are now known from the
Wailau sea cliffs on Molokai and the Kalalau Valley rim on Kauai (D.
Lorence et al., in litt., 1991).
Response: At the time the proposed rule was written, 250 to 350
individuals of Peucedanum sandwicense were known; however, several
additional colonies were subsequently brought to the Service's
attention, bringing the totals to between 1,000 to 5,000 individuals
(CPC 1992; D. Lorence et al., in litt., 1991). This information has
been included in the final rule. Based on the above information, the
Service determines that Peucedanum sandwicense is not now in danger of
extinction, but that it is likely to become endangered in the
foreseeable future if the threats posed by competition from alien plant
species and feral goats are not curbed. Thus, Peucedanum sandwicense is
designated a threatened species.
Issue 3: Status of Schiedea spergulina: One respondent stated that
one variety of Schiedea spergulina, var. spergulina, is not immediately
threatened with extinction. The proposed rule treated the species as
one entity in terms of listing.
Response: Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda is known from only 1
population of 50 to 100 individuals (HHP 1991x2; T. Flynn, J. Lau, and
S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). The numbers of plants and populations
of this variety are sufficiently small that, given its threats, it is
in immediate danger of extinction and meets the definition of an
endangered species as defined in the Act. Schiedea spergulina var.
spergulina is known from 5 locations with from 1,000 to 5,000
individuals total. Based on the above information, the Service
determines that Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina is not now in
danger of extinction, but that it is likely to become endangered in the
foreseeable future if the threats posed by competition from alien taxa
and feral goats are not curbed. Thus, Schiedea spergulina var.
spergulina is designated a threatened species and S. spergulina var.
leiopoda is designated as an endangered species.
Issue 4: Changes to the Act: Several concerns were expressed in
letters of comment and in testimony at the public hearing about the
Endangered Species Act and its effect on private citizens and
landowners. One individual asked both during testimony at the hearing
and in multiple letters of comment that the ability of the Federal
government to seize land with endangered species be removed from the
Act. Concern was expressed by four individuals during their testimony
and in three letters of comment that the Endangered Species Act does
not allow private citizens to grow and propagate endangered species.
Many respondents asked that the permit process be streamlined for
propagation and scientific research purposes.
Response: The Act does not require the seizure or acquisition of
private lands containing endangered species. The Act also does not
restrict the growth and propagation of endangered plant taxa by private
citizens as long as the plants are not collected from Federal lands,
are not transported between states or outside of the U.S., and that
these actions do not violate State laws. A Federal permit for
collecting is only required if the collection involves Federal actions,
Federal funding, or activities on Federal lands.
Issue 5: Changes to State regulations: Concern was expressed by
four individuals during their testimony and in three letters of comment
that State regulations might make the propagation or cultivation of
these 24 taxa more difficult if they were listed as endangered, since
State regulations prohibit possessing endangered plants or collecting
their propagules. Permits to collect or possess endangered plants may
be issued by the State to enhance the propagation or survival of the
species, but the respondents believe that it is difficult and
burdensome to obtain these permits. One individual was also concerned
about the seizure of private lands by the State to protect endangered
species. Another individual stated that rezoning for conservation
districts should be limited to public lands.
Response: Hawaii Administration Rule 13-124-4(a) allows for
``Permits to * * * possess * * * any endangered or threatened species
of wildlife or plants'' to be issued ``to enhance the propagation or
survival of the species.'' To date, the State has worked with private
landowners to reach a cooperative agreement for management of
endangered species habitat or to reach a fair purchase price. Concerns
about the State's endangered species law and how it affects private
citizens, and any requests to change State requirements, should be
addressed to State authorities. The Service believes that existing
State policies should not delay or prevent the Federal protection that
listing would afford the species.
Issue 6: Threat of game mammals: One individual at the hearing was
concerned that there is inadequate information on the effects of feral
ungulates to indicate that their eradication would truly benefit the
proposed plants.
Response: The Service is not proposing the eradication of feral
ungulates from the island of Kauai. However, several studies verify
that feral ungulates damage native plants and habitats. Feral goats
have been implicated in the damage of native vegetation ranging from
lowland to subalpine areas (Mueller-Dombois and Spatz 1972, Spatz and
Mueller-Dombois 1973, Scowcroft and Sakai 1983). Goat browsing damage
has been observed on individuals of Exocarpus luteolus, Lipochaeta
micrantha, and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina (HHP 1991k5; T.
Flynn, pers. comm., 1991; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1993). Goats
threaten 12 other species through habitat degradation.
Pigs have been similarly implicated in damaging native habitats.
Specific studies have demonstrated that native vegetation recovers
significantly after the exclusion of pigs in rainforests and subalpine
grasslands (Spatz and Mueller-Dombois 1975, Stone 1985). Eleven species
in this rule are threatened by habitat degradation caused by pigs.
Elimination or reduction of habitat damage by feral ungulates will be
addressed during the recovery process for these species.
Issue 7: Lack of adequate management: Four respondents and three
individuals in their testimony stated that inadequate management of
State and Federal lands in the past has caused the decline of many of
the 24 taxa.
Response: Listing a species as either endangered or threatened does
enable States, such as Hawaii, to apply for Federal funds to undertake
programs aimed at conserving endangered species. Additional concerns
about the management of State lands should be addressed to State
authorities. None of the 24 taxa are found on federally owned lands.
Populations of one species, Peucedanum sandwicense, are found on State
land managed under a cooperative agreement with the National Park
Service. The National Park Service assumed management of the area in
1980. A natural resource management plan will be developed for the area
soon, but must be approved by the State before it can be implemented
(Gary Barbano, National Park Service, pers. comm., 1993).
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
After a thorough review and consideration of all information
available, the Service has determined that Brighamia insignis ('olulu),
Cyanea asarifolia (haha), Delissea rhytidosperma (no common name
(NCN)), Diellia pallida (NCN), Exocarpos luteolus (heau), Hedyotis
cookiana ('awiwi), Hibiscus clayi (Clay's hibiscus), Lipochaeta fauriei
(nehe), Lipochaeta micrantha (nehe), Lipochaeta waimeaensis (nehe),
Lysimachia filifolia (NCN), Melicope haupuensis (alani), Melicope
knudsenii (alani), Melicope pallida (alani), Melicope quadrangularis
(alani), Munroidendron racemosum (NCN), Nothocestrum peltatum ('aiea),
Phyllostegia waimeae (NCN), Pteralyxia kauaiensis (kaulu), Schiedea
spergulina var. leiopoda (NCN), and Solanum sandwicense
(popolo'aiakeakua) should be classified as endangered species; and that
Cyrtandra limahuliensis (ha'iwale), Peucedanum sandwicense (makou), and
Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina (NCN) should be classified as
threatened species. The provisions of section 4 of the Endangered
Species Act (16 U.S.C 1533) and regulations (50 CFR part 424)
promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the Act were
followed in making these determinations. A species may be determined to
be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more of the five
factors described in section 4(a)(1). The threats facing these 24 taxa
are summarized in Table 1.
Table1.--Summary of Threats
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alien mammals
Species -------------------------------------------------- Insects Alien Fire Natural Human Limited
Cattle Deer Goats Pigs Rats plants disaster* impacts numbers**
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Brighamia insignis.................... ........ ........ X ........ ........ X X X X X X1,3
Cyanea asarifolia..................... ........ ........ ........ P P ........ ........ ........ X X X1,2
Cyrtandra limahuliensis............... ........ ........ ........ X ........ ........ X ........ P P
Delissea rhytidosperma................ ........ X X X X ........ X X X X X1,2
Diellia pallida....................... ........ X X X ........ ........ X ........ X X X1,2
Exocarpos luteolus.................... ........ ........ X X X ........ X X X P
Hedyotis cookiana..................... ........ ........ P P ........ ........ P ........ P P X1,3
Hibiscus clayi........................ ........ ........ ........ P ........ ........ X ........ .......... X X1,2
Lipochaeta fauriei.................... ........ ........ X P ........ ........ X X .......... P X1,3
Lipochaeta micrantha var. exigua...... ........ ........ ........ X ........ ........ X ........ .......... P X1
Lipochaeta micrantha vir. micrantha... ........ ........ X X ........ ........ X ........ .......... P X1
Lipochaeta waimeaensis................ ........ ........ X ........ ........ ........ X ........ X X X1,2
Lysimachia filifolia.................. ........ ........ ........ P ........ ........ X ........ X P X1
Melicope haupuensis................... ........ ........ X ........ ........ P X ........ .......... X X1,2
Melicope knudsenii.................... X P X X ........ P X P .......... P X1,3
Melicope pallida...................... ........ ........ X X ........ P X X .......... P X3
Melicope quadrangularis............... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ P P ........ .......... P X1,3
Munroidendron racemosum............... ........ ........ X ........ P P X X X P X3
Nothocestrum peltatum................. ........ X X X ........ ........ X X .......... X X1,3
Peucedanum sandwicense................ ........ P X ........ ........ ........ X X X X
Phyllostegia waimeae.................. ........ ........ X ........ ........ ........ X ........ X X X1,2
Pteralyxia kauaiensis................. ........ ........ X X P ........ X X .......... P
Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda..... ........ ........ X ........ ........ ........ X ........ X P X1,3
Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina... ........ ........ X ........ ........ ........ X ........ .......... P X1
Solanum sandwicense................... ........ ........ ........ X ........ ........ X X X X X1,3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
X=Immediate and significant threat.
P=Potential threat.
*=Natural disasters include hurricanes, erosion, rock slides, and landslides.
**=No more than 100 individuals and/or no more than 5 populations.
1=No more than 5 populations.
2=No more than 10 individuals.
3=No more than 100 individuals.
These factors and their application to Brighamia insignis A. Gray
('olulu), Cyanea asarifolia St. John (haha), Cyrtandra limahuliensis
St. John (ha'iwale), Delissea rhytidosperma H. Mann (no common name
(NCN)), Diellia pallida W.H. Wagner (NCN), Exocarpos luteolus C. Forbes
(heau), Hedyotis cookiana (Cham. and Schlechtend.) Steud. ('awiwi),
Hibiscus clayi Degener and I. Degener (Clay's hibiscus), Lipochaeta
fauriei H. Levl. (nehe), Lipochaeta micrantha (Nutt.) A. Gray (nehe),
Lipochaeta waimeaensis St. John (nehe), Lysimachia filifolia C. Forbes
and Lydgate (NCN), Melicope haupuensis (St. John) Hartley and Stone
(alani), Melicope knudsenii (Hillebr.) Hartley and Stone (alani),
Melicope pallida (Hillebr.) Hartley and Stone (alani), Melicope
quadrangularis (St. John and E. Hume) T. Hartley and B. Stone (alani),
Munroidendron racemosum (C. Forbes) Sherff (NCN), Nothocestrum peltatum
Skottsb. ('aiea), Peucedanum sandwicense Hillebr. (makou), Phyllostegia
waimeae Wawra (NCN), Pteralyxia kauaiensis Caum (kaulu), Schiedea
spergulina var. leiopoda Sherff (NCN), Schiedea spergulina A. Gray var.
spergulina (NCN), and Solanum sandwicense Hook. and Arnott.
(popolo'aiakeakua) are as follows:
A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment
of Its Habitat or Range
The habitats of the plants included in this rule have undergone
extreme alteration because of past and present land management
practices, including deliberate alien animal and plant introductions,
agricultural development, and recreational use. Natural disturbances
such as storms and landslides also destroy habitat and can have a
significant effect on small populations of plants. Destruction and
modification of habitat by introduced animals and competition with
alien plants are the primary threats facing the 24 plant taxa in this
rule (see Table 1).
When Polynesian immigrants settled in the Hawaiian Islands, they
brought with them water-control and slash-and-burn systems of
agriculture and encouraged plants that they introduced to grow in
valleys. Their use of the land resulted in erosion, changes in the
composition of native communities, and a reduction of biodiversity
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990; HHP 1990b; Kirch 1982; Wagner et al. 1985).
Hawaiians settled and altered many areas of Kauai including areas in
which some of the taxa in this rule grew (DLNR 1981a; HHP 1990a,
1990b). Many forested slopes were denuded in the mid-1800s to supply
firewood to whaling ships, plantations, and Honolulu residents. Native
plants, such as the historic population of Lipochaeta micrantha var.
micrantha in Koloa District (HHP 1991k4), were undoubtedly affected by
this practice. Also, sandalwood and tree fern harvesting occurred in
many areas, changing forest composition and affecting native taxa
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
Beginning with Captain James Cook in 1792, early European explorers
introduced livestock, which became feral, increased in number and
range, and caused significant changes to the natural environment of
Hawaii. The 1848 provision for land sales to individuals allowed large-
scale agricultural and ranching ventures to begin. So much land was
cleared for these enterprises that climatic conditions began to change
and the amount and distribution of rainfall were altered (Wenkam 1969).
Plantation owners supported reforestation programs that resulted in
many alien trees being introduced in the hope that the watershed could
be conserved. Beginning in the 1920s, water collection and diversion
systems were constructed in upland areas to irrigate lowland fields. It
is probable that individuals and populations of native plants were
destroyed. Some of the taxa, such as a Kokee population of Exocarpos
luteolus and a Waimea Canyon population of Schiedea spergulina var.
spergulina, which now occur near ditches of the irrigation system, may
have been affected (HHP 1991f4, 1991y2). The irrigation system also
opened new routes for the invasion of alien plants and animals into
native forests (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Culliney 1988, Wagner et al.
1990, Wenkam 1969).
Past and present activities of introduced alien mammals are the
primary factor in altering and degrading vegetation and habitats on
Kauai, Niihau, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui. Feral ungulates trample and eat
native vegetation and disturb and open new areas. This causes erosion
and allows the entry of alien plant taxa (Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Wagner et al. 1990). Nineteen taxa in this proposal are directly
threatened by habitat degradation resulting from introduced ungulates:
17 taxa are threatened by goats; 10 by pigs; 3 by deer; and 1 by
cattle. In addition, an introduced ground-nesting bird potentially
threatens one taxon by disturbing its habitat.
Goat (Capra hircus), a species originally native to the Middle East
and India, was successfully introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1792
and there currently are populations on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and
Hawaii. All feral goats were removed from Niihau about 1910, but by
that time they had caused considerable damage to the island's dry and
mesic forests. On Kauai, feral goats have been present in drier, more
rugged areas since the 1820s. They still occur in Waimea Canyon and
along the Na Pali Coast, as well as in the drier perimeter of Alakai
Swamp and even in its wetter areas during periods with low rainfall.
Goats have been on Oahu since about 1820 and they currently occur in
the northern Waianae Mountains. On Molokai, goats degrade dry forests
at low elevations and they are expanding their range (J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1991). On Maui, goats have been widespread for 100 to 150 years
and are common throughout the south slope of Haleakala (Medeiros et al.
1986). Goats are managed in Hawaii as a game animal, but many herds
populate inaccessible areas where hunting has little effect on their
numbers (HHP 1990c). Goat hunting is allowed year-round or during
certain months, depending on the area (DLNR n.d.-a, n.d.-b, n.d.-c,
1990). Goats browse on introduced grasses and native plants, especially
in drier and more open ecosystems. Feral goats eat native vegetation,
trample roots and seedlings, cause erosion, and promote the invasion of
alien plants. They are able to forage in extremely rugged terrain and
have a high reproductive capacity (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, Culliney 1988, Scott et al. 1986, Tomich 1986, van Riper
and van Riper 1982).
Although many of the plants survive on steep cliffs inaccessible to
goats, their original range was probably much larger. Plants are
vulnerable to the long-term, indirect effects of goats, such as large-
scale erosion (Corn et al. 1979). The habitats of many of the 24 plant
taxa in this rule were damaged in the past by goats and these effects
are still apparent today in the form of alien vegetation and erosion.
One or more populations of 17 of the following taxa are currently
threatened by direct damage from feral goats, such as trampling of
plants and seedlings and erosion of substrate: Brighamia insignis;
Delissea rhytidosperma; Diellia pallida; Exocarpos luteolus; Lipochaeta
fauriei; Lipochaeta micrantha var. micrantha; Lipochaeta waimeaensis;
Melicope haupuensis; Melicope knudsenii; Melicope pallida;
Munroidendron racemosum; Nothocestrum peltatum; Peucedanum sandwicense;
Phyllostegia waimeae; Pteralyxia kauaiensis, and both varieties of
Schiedea spergulina. In addition, it is probable that goats have
invaded the area in which the only known population of Hedyotis
cookiana occurs (Bruegmann 1990; Clarke and Cuddihy 1980; Culliney
1988; HHP 1991a1, 1991e3, 1991f6, 1991i3, 1991k5, 1991o1, 1991o2,
1991p1 to 1991p4, 1991q6, 1991q8, 1991s1, 1991s8 to 1991s10, 1991s15,
1991t7, 1991u14, 1991w5, 1991y5; HPCC 1990a, 1990i4, 1990j2, 1990j3,
1990k1, 1990k2; Lammers 1990; Lamoureux 1982; Medeiros et al. 1986;
Perlman 1979; St. John 1981b; Scott et al. 1986; Takeuchi 1982; van
Riper and van Riper 1982; C. Christensen, T. Flynn, R. Hobdy, J. Lau,
D. Lorence, S. Montgomery, S. Perlman, and K. Wood, pers. comms.,
1991).
Pig (Sus scrofa) is a species originally native to Europe, northern
Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia. European pigs, introduced to Hawaii by
Captain James Cook in 1778, became feral and invaded forested areas,
especially wet and mesic forests and dry areas at high elevations. They
are currently present on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, and
inhabit rain forests and grasslands. Pig hunting is allowed on all
islands either year-round or during certain months, depending on the
area (DLNR n.d.-a, n.d.-b, n.d.-c, 1990). While rooting in the ground
in search of the invertebrates and plant material they eat, feral pigs
disturb and destroy vegetative cover, trample plants and seedlings, and
threaten forest regeneration by damaging seeds and seedlings. They
disturb soil substrates and cause erosion, especially on slopes. Alien
plant seeds are dispersed on their hooves and coats as well as through
their digestive tracts. The disturbed soil is fertilized by their
feces, helping these plants to establish. Pigs are a major vector in
the spread of banana poka, firetree, and strawberry guava and enhance
populations of common guava, kahili ginger, Hamakua pamakani, prickly
Florida blackberry, sweet granadilla, and yellow ginger, all of which
threaten one or more of the taxa (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Medeiros et
al. 1986, Scott et al. 1986, Smith 1985, Stone 1985, Tomich 1986,
Wagner et al. 1990).
Feral pigs pose an immediate threat to 1 or more populations of 11
of the taxa. At least one population of each of the following taxa is
threatened by feral pigs: Pteralyxia kauaiensis; Solanum sandwicense;
both varieties of Lipochaeta micrantha; Cyrtandra limahuliensis;
Delissea rhytidosperma; Diellia pallida; Exocarpos luteolus; Lipochaeta
fauriei; Melicope knudsenii; Melicope pallida; and Nothocestrum
peltatum. Pigs also constitute a potential threat to Cyanea asarifolia,
Hedyotis cookiana, Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta fauriei, and Lysimachia
filifolia (Bruegmann 1990; HHP 1991f6, 1991p1, 1991p3; HPCC 1990i3,
1990i4; J. Obata, pers. comm., 1990; C. Christensen, T. Flynn, R.
Hobdy, J. Lau, D. Lorence, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991).
Cattle (Bos taurus), the wild progenitor of which was native to
Europe, north Africa, and southwestern Asia, were introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands in 1793. Large feral herds developed as a result of
restrictions on killing cattle decreed by King Kamehameha I. Feral
cattle formerly occurred on Niihau and, along with goats and sheep
(Ovis aries), caused much damage on the island (Stone 1985). On Kauai,
parts of Kokee were leased for cattle grazing in the 1850s and both
sides of Waimea Canyon were supporting large cattle ranching operations
by the 1870s (Joesting 1984, Ryan and Chang 1985). Cattle grazing began
about 1920 in the Na Pali region (DLNR 1981a). Cattle roamed lowland
areas and eventually began invading wet forests from adjacent mesic
areas. Around 1900, Augustus Knudsen, the district forester of Kauai
and a rancher, realizing the amount of destruction being caused to the
forests by cattle, initiated some fencing (Daehler 1973). Sugar company
interests funded additional fencing as well as feral cattle removal to
protect the forest from further degradation and to safeguard water
reserves for their crops (Wenkam 1969). On Kauai, feral cattle were
still present in Kokee as late as 1960 and in the Puu Ka Pele area in
the 1980s. Feral cattle roamed Oahu, but most were removed by the early
1960s. Today, only a few can be found in the northwestern part of the
island (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1990). Feral cattle were formerly found on
Molokai and Maui and damaged the forests there. Hunting of feral cattle
is no longer allowed in Hawaii (DLNR 1985). Cattle eat native
vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, cause erosion, create
disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, and spread seeds of
alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. The forest, in areas
grazed by cattle, becomes degraded to grassland pasture. Plant cover is
reduced for many years following removal of cattle from an area.
Several alien grasses and legumes purposely introduced for cattle
forage have become noxious weeds (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Scott et al.
1986, Tomich 1986).
The habitats of many of the plants included in this rule were
degraded in the past by feral cattle. This has had effects which still
persist. Examples of plant taxa whose habitats have been altered by
feral cattle include Hibiscus clayi and Munroidendron racemosum. The
Maui population of Melicope knudsenii, growing in an area currently
used as a domestic cattle pasture, is directly threatened by trampling
by this animal (Degener and Degener 1959a; HHP 1991h3, 1991p1;
Lamoureux 1982).
Individuals of mule deer or black-tailed deer (Odocoileus
hemionus), native from western North America to central Mexico, were
brought to Kauai from Oregon in the 1960s for game hunting and have not
been introduced to any other Hawaiian island. In part, mule deer were
introduced to provide another animal for hunting, since the State had
planned to reduce the number of goats on Kauai because they were so
destructive to the landscape (Kramer 1971). There are about 400 animals
in and near Waimea Canyon, with some invasion into Alakai Swamp in
drier periods. Mule deer, legally hunted during only one month each
year, trample native vegetation and cause erosion by creating trails
and removing vegetation (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, DLNR 1985, Tomich
1986). They are a threat to Delissea rhytidosperma, Diellia pallida,
and Nothocestrum peltatum (Bruegmann 1990; HPCC 1990b, 1990i3, 1990i4;
S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991).
Axis deer (Axis), native to Sri Lanka and India, were first
introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1868 as a game animal on Molokai,
later to Oahu and Lanai, and finally to East Maui in 1960. Hunting of
axis deer is allowed only on Molokai and Lanai during two months of the
year. Considerable damage has been done to the forests on Molokai and
Lanai by this animal, especially through browsing of vegetation and
compaction of the soil (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Culliney 1988, DLNR
1985, Scott et al. 1986, Tomich 1986). With a population of about 100
animals on the lower southwest slope of Haleakala, the range of the
axis deer is expanding on East Maui and constitutes a potential threat
to Melicope knudsenii (Medeiros et al. 1986). On Molokai, axis deer are
encroaching on Pelekunu Valley and are already present in Kalaupapa,
thus posing a potential threat to populations of Peucedanum sandwicense
in these areas (HHP 1991u7, 1991u16; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1990).
Red jungle fowl (Gallus), ground-nesting chickens native to India
and southeast Asia, were introduced to Hawaii by the Polynesian
immigrants and became feral in the forests. A current threat to the
Makaha Valley, Kauai, population of Nothocestrum peltatum, red jungle
fowl disturb the ground cover while searching for seeds, fruits, and
small invertebrates, thus disrupting seedling establishment (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, HPCC 1990i3, Scott et al. 1986).
Substrate loss due to agriculture, grazing animals (especially
goats), hikers, and vegetation change results in habitat degradation
and loss. This particularly affects plant populations located on cliffs
or steep slopes, including Lipochaeta waimeaensis, Brighamia insignis,
Diellia pallida, Exocarpos luteolus, Peucedanum sandwicense, and
Phyllostegia waimeae (Bruegmann 1990; Christensen 1979; HHP 1991f6;
Takeuchi 1982; G. Carr, R. Hobdy, and J. Obata, pers. comms., 1991).
B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes.
Unrestricted collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes
and excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants
could result from increased publicity. This is a potential threat to
all 24 of the taxa, but especially to Cyanea asarifolia, Delissea
rhytidosperma, Diellia pallida, Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta waimeaensis,
Melicope haupuensis, and Phyllostegia waimeae, each of which has only 1
or 2 populations and a total of 10 or fewer individuals. Collection of
whole plants or reproductive parts of any of these seven taxa could
cause an adverse impact on the gene pool and threaten the survival of
the taxa. Some taxa, such as Brighamia insignis, Exocarpos luteolus,
Hibiscus clayi, Nothocestrum peltatum, Peucedanum sandwicense, and
Solanum sandwicense, have populations close to trails or roads and are,
thus, easily accessible to collectors (HHP 1991a3, 1991f6, 1991h1,
1991t1, 1991t2, 1991t4, 1991t7, 1991u1, 1991u3, 1991u5, 1991u7,
1991u15, 1991z11, 1991z12, 1991z18, 1991z20, 1991z23, 1991z25, 1991z26;
HPCC 1990c, 1990i1 to 1990i4, 1990m).
Many of the plants occur in recreational areas used for hiking,
camping, and hunting. Tourism is a growing industry in Hawaii and as
more people seek recreational activities, they are more likely to come
into contact with rare native plants. People can transport or introduce
alien plants through seeds on their footwear and they can cause
erosion, trample plants, and start fires (Corn et al. 1979). Brighamia
insignis, Hibiscus clayi, and Peucedanum sandwicense have populations
next to trails and are considered to be immediately threatened by
recreational use of the areas in which they occur (Clarke and Cuddihy
1980; Takeuchi 1982; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991).
C. Disease or Predation
Browsing damage by goats has been verified for the following taxa:
Brighamia insignis; Exocarpos luteolus; Peucedanum sandwicense; and
Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina (HHP 1991y5; Takeuchi 1982; T.
Flynn, J. Lau, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991; L. Mehrhoff, pers.
comm., 1993). The remaining taxa are not known to be unpalatable to
goats, deer, or cattle and, therefore, predation is a probable threat
where those animals have been reported, potentially affecting 15
additional taxa. These taxa include Delissea rhytidosperma, Diellia
pallida, Hedyotis cookiana, Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta fauriei,
Lipochaeta micrantha, Lipochaeta waimeaensis, Melicope haupuensis,
Melicope knudsenii, Melicope pallida, Munroidendron racemosum,
Nothocestrum peltatum, Phyllostegia waimeae, Pteralyxia kauaiensis, and
Solanum sandwicense. The lack of seedlings of many of the taxa and the
occurrence of individuals of several taxa only on inaccessible cliffs
appear to indicate the effect that browsing mammals, especially goats,
have had in restricting the distribution of these plants (HHP 1990b,
Takeuchi 1982).
Of the four species of rodents that have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, the species with the greatest impact on the native
flora and fauna is probably the black or roof rat (Rattus rattus),
which now occurs on all the main Hawaiian Islands around human
habitations, in cultivated fields, and in dry to wet forests. Black
rats, and to a lesser extent house mouse (Mus musculus), Polynesian rat
(Rattus exulans), and Norway rat (R. norvegicus) eat the fruits of some
native plants, especially those with large, fleshy fruits. Many native
Hawaiian plants produce their fruit over an extended period of time and
this produces a prolonged food supply that supports rodent populations.
Black rats strip bark from some native plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Tomich 1986). Rats threaten Delissea rhytidosperma by damaging the
fruits and stems (Bruegmann 1990). Rats eat fruits of Exocarpos
luteolus, threatening this species as well. It is probable that rats
damage the fruit and stems of Cyanea asarifolia, Munroidendron
racemosum, and Pteralyxia kauaiensis, which have fleshy fruits and
populations in areas where rats occur (Lamoureux 1982; T. Flynn and D.
Herbst, pers. comms., 1991).
Black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus) is a small beetle about
1.6 mm (0.06 in) in length that burrows into branches, introduces a
pathogenic fungus as food for its larvae, and lays its eggs. Twigs,
branches, and even the entire plant can be killed from such an
infestation. In the Hawaiian Islands, black twig borer has many hosts,
disperses easily, and is probably present at most elevations up to
2,500 ft (670 m). It is known to attack species of Melicope and is a
potential threat to Melicope haupuensis, M. knudsenii, M. pallida, and
M. quadrangularis, all of which grow in areas where the insect is
believed to be present (Davis 1970; Hara and Beardsley 1979; Hill 1987;
Medeiros et al. 1986; Samuelson 1981; S. Montgomery, pers. comm.,
1991).
D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms
Hawaii's Endangered Species Act states, ``Any species of aquatic
life, wildlife, or land plant that has been determined to be an
endangered species pursuant to the [Federal] Endangered Species Act
shall be deemed to be an endangered species under the provisions of
this chapter * * *'' (HRS, sect. 195D-4(a)). Federal listing would
automatically invoke listing under Hawaii State law, which prohibits
taking of endangered plants in the State and encourages conservation by
State agencies (HRS, sect. 195D-4).
None of the 24 taxa in this final rule are listed by the State.
Twelve taxa have populations located on privately owned land. Two taxa,
Melicope quadrangularis and Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda, are
found exclusively on private land. Peucedanum sandwicense is found on
City and County of Honolulu land and federally managed land, as well as
State land. At least one population of each taxon except Schiedea
spergulina var. leiopoda and Melicope quadrangularis occur on State
land. Eleven of the taxa are located in State parks, NARs, or the
seabird sanctuary, which have rules and regulations for the protection
of resources (DLNR 1981b; HRS, sects. 183D-4, 184-5, 195- 5, and 195-
8). One or more populations of each of the 24 tax a except Schiedea
spergulina var. leiopoda is located on land classified within
conservation districts and owned by the City and County of Honolulu,
the State of Hawaii, or private companies or individuals. Regardless of
the owner, lands within these districts are regarded as necessary for
the protection of endemic biological resources and for the maintenance,
enhancement, or conservation of natural resources. Activities permitted
in conservation districts are chosen by considering how best to make
multiple use of the land (HRS, sect. 205-2). Some uses, such as
maintaining animals for hunting, are based on policy decisions, while
others, such as preservation of endangered species, are mandated by
both Federal and State laws.
Requests for amendments to district boundaries or variances within
existing classifications can be made by government agencies and private
landowners (HRS, sect. 205-4). Before decisions about these requests
are made, the impact of the proposed reclassification on ``preservation
or maintenance of important natural systems or habitat'' (HRS, sects.
205-4, 205-17), as well as the maintenance of natural resources, is
required to be taken into account (HRS, sects. 205-2, 205-4). Before
any land use change proposed to occur on county or State lands and
funded, in part or in whole, by county or State funds, or would occur
within land classified as conservation district, an environmental
assessment is required to determine whether or not the environment
would be significantly affected (HRS, chapt. 343). If it is found that
an action would have a significant effect, preparation of a full
Environmental Impact Statement is required. Hawaii environmental policy
and, thus, approval of land use, is required by law to safeguard ``* *
* the State's unique natural environmental characteristics * * *''
(HRS, sect. 344-3(1)) and includes guidelines to ``Protect endangered
species of individual plants and animals * * *'' (HRS, sect. 344-
4(3)(A)). Federal listing, because it automatically invokes State
listing, would trigger operation of these other State regulations
protecting the plants.
State laws relating to the conservation of biological resources
allow for the acquisition of land as well as the development and
implementation of programs concerning the conservation of biological
resources (HRS, sect. 195D-5(a)). The State also may enter into
agreements with Federal agencies to administer and manage any area
required for the conservation, management, enhancement, or protection
of endangered species (HRS, sect. 195D-5(c)). If listing were to occur,
funds for these activities could be made available under section 6 of
the Federal Endangered Species Act (State Cooperative Agreements). The
DLNR is mandated to initiate changes in conservation district
boundaries to include ``the habitat of rare native species of flora and
fauna within the conservation district'' (HRS, sect. 195D-5.1).
Ten of the taxa are threatened by plants considered by the State of
Hawaii to be noxious weeds. The State has provisions for eradication
and control of noxious weeds on State and private land in conservation
districts and other areas (HRS, chapt. 152; DOA 1981, 1991). State and
Federal agencies have programs to locate, eradicate, and deter
marijuana cultivation, which is a potential threat to six taxa (HHP
1990c). Federal listing of these 24 plant taxa would reinforce and
supplement the protection available under the Hawaii State Endangered
Species Act and other laws. The Federal Endangered Species Act would
offer additional protection to these 24 taxa because, if they were to
be listed as endangered or threatened, it would be a violation of the
Federal Endangered Species Act for any person to remove, cut, dig up,
damage, or destroy any such plant in an area not under Federal
jurisdiction in knowing violation of State law or regulation or in the
course of any violation of a State criminal trespass law.
E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued Existence
One or more of the almost 50 taxa of introduced plants threaten 21
of the 24 plant taxa in this rule and potentially threaten the other
three. The original native flora of Hawaii consisted of about 1,000
taxa, 89 percent of which were endemic. Of the total native and
naturalized Hawaiian flora of 1,817 taxa, 47 percent were introduced
from other parts of the world and nearly 100 taxa have become pests
(Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Naturalized, introduced taxa degrade
the Hawaiian landscape and compete with native plants for space, light,
water, and nutrients (Cuddihy and Stone, 1990; D. Lorence, pers. comm.,
1991). Some of these taxa were brought to Hawaii by various groups of
people, including the Polynesian immigrants, for food or cultural
reasons. Plantation owners, alarmed at the reduction of water resources
for their crops caused by the destruction of native forest cover by
grazing feral animals, supported the introduction of alien tree taxa
for reforestation. Ranchers intentionally introduced pasture grasses
and other taxa for agriculture and sometimes inadvertently introduced
weed seeds as well. Other plants were brought to Hawaii for their
potential horticultural value (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Scott et al.
1986, Wenkam 1969).
A small tree, Acacia confusa (Formosa koa), was introduced to
Hawaii for reforestation purposes and is naturalized in dry to mesic,
disturbed habitats on most of the Hawaiian Islands (Smith 1985, Wagner
et al. 1990). Acacia mearnsii (black wattle) was introduced as a
cultivated plant and has naturalized on five islands in pastures and
dry to mesic forests (Wagner et al. 1990). It threatens Exocarpos
luteolus (T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991). Two subshrubs in the genus
Ageratina have naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands and are classified
as noxious weeds by the State (Hawaii, Department of Agriculture (DOA)
1981). Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani), naturalized in dry areas
to wet forests on four islands, is also classified as a noxious weed by
the Federal government (7 CFR 360). It threatens Peucedanum sandwicense
(HHP 1991u16, Wagner et al. 1990). Ageratina riparia (Hamakua pamakani)
is naturalized in disturbed, dry to mesic areas and wet forest on four
islands and is a threat to Lysimachia filifolia, as well as to
Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991u16; HPCC 1990g2, 1990j1, 1990j3;
Wagner et al. 1990). Ageratum conyzoides (maile hohono), an herb that
is a common weed in many areas of the main Hawaiian Islands, threatens
Brighamia insignis in some areas (HHP 1991a1; Wagner et al. 1990).
Although it is the official State tree of Hawaii, Aleurites
moluccana (kukui) is not a native Hawaiian plant. It was originally
native to Malesia. It was brought to Hawaii by the Polynesian
immigrants and is now a component of mesic valley ecosystems on all of
the main islands except Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1990). One or more
populations of Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta fauriei, Munroidendron
racemosum, and Pteralyxia kauaiensis grow in areas with kukui, which
may compete with these native species for space. Hibiscus clayi and
Lipochaeta fauriei do not grow under a dense canopy, so kukui could
prevent them from regenerating in an area. Munroidendron racemosum and
Pteralyxia kauaiensis, overstory trees in native forests, are displaced
when kukui dominates (HHP 1991h2, 1991s1, 1991s4, 1991s5, 1991s8,
1991s10, 1991s15, 1991w1, 1991w4, 1991w5; HPCC 1990d3; Lamoureux 1982;
T. Flynn, J. Lau, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). Araucaria
columnaris (columnar araucaria), planted in Hawaii for reforestation
and timber production and now found on all the main islands, is
reseeding and threatens Hibiscus clayi (Little and Skolman 1989; Neal
1965; D. Bates, pers. comm., 1991). Bidens pilosa (Spanish needle), an
annual herb naturalized on all the main Hawaiian Islands, is a threat
to Peucedanum sandwicense (Ganders and Nagata 1990, HHP 1991u15).
Classified as a noxious weed by the State of Hawaii, Clidemia hirta
(Koster's curse) is an aggressive shrub found in mesic to wet forests
on at least five islands in Hawaii (Almeda 1990, DOA 1981). It is a
threat to Melicope pallida and Peucedanum sandwicense. It is a
potential threat to Cyrtandra limahuliensis (HHP 1990c; T. Flynn and S.
Montgomery, pers. comms., 1991). Cordyline fruticosa (ti) is a shrub
that was brought to Hawaii by the Polynesian immigrants. Its original
range is unknown, but in Hawaii it is now naturalized on all the main
islands except Kahoolawe in hala forest and mesic valleys and forests,
sometimes forming dense stands (Wagner et al. 1990; J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1991). One or more populations of the following taxa compete for
space with ti: Delissea rhytidosperma; Hibiscus clayi; Lipochaeta
micrantha var. exigua; Lysimachia filifolia; Munroidendron racemosum;
and Pteralyxia kauaiensis (HHP 1991d2, 1991h1, 1991h2, 1991j1, 1991s1,
1991w7; HPCC 1990c, 1990e, 1990g2; J. Lau, T. Flynn, and S. Perlman,
pers. comms., 1991). Corynocarpus laevigatus (karakanut), a tree
introduced to Hawaii for reforestation, is now found on four islands
and is a threat to Exocarpos luteolus (Wagner et al. 1990; T. Flynn,
pers. comm., 1991).
Brought to Hawaii as a cultivated herbaceous plant, Erigeron
karvinskianus (daisy fleabane) is naturalized in wetter areas of four
islands (Wagner et al. 1990). Invasion by daisy fleabane threatens
Exocarpos luteolus, Lipochaeta micrantha var. micrantha, Melicope
pallida, Nothocestrum peltatum, and Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991k1;
HPCC 1990f, 1990i4, 1990j2; T. Flynn and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1991).
Furcraea foetida (Mauritius hemp), a large rosette plant naturalized on
most islands in Hawaii on rocky ledges, slopes, and in pastures,
threatens Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda (Wagner et al. 1990; T.
Flynn, pers. comm., 1991). Grevillea banksii (kahili flower),
considered a noxious weed by the State of Hawaii, was introduced as a
cultivated tree and has naturalized in disturbed, dry to wet forests on
most of the main Hawaiian Islands (DOA 1981, Wagner et al. 1990). It
threatens Cyrtandra limahuliensis (T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991).
Grevillea robusta (silk oak) was extensively planted in Hawaii for
timber and is now naturalized on most of the main islands (Smith 1985,
Wagner et al. 1990). Silk oak threatens Lipochaeta waimeaensis and
Peucedanum sandwicense (HPCC 1990j1; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991).
Three species of Hedychium (ginger), native to the Himalayas and
surrounding areas, were brought to Hawaii as ornamentals and are now
naturalized in mesic or wet forests. Two of these species threaten one
or more of the 24 taxa in this rule. Their rhizomes produce rapid,
vegetative growth, forming dense ground cover that excludes other
plants. The Wainiha population of Cyrtandra limahuliensis is threatened
by H. flavescens (yellow ginger) (T. Flynn and K. Wood, pers. comms.,
1991). Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili ginger) produces red seeds that
are distributed by alien fruit-eating birds; it threatens Solanum
sandwicense (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; HPCC 1990m; Nagata 1990; Smith
1985; T. Flynn and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1991). Kalanchoe pinnata (air
plant) is an herb that occurs on all the main islands except Niihau and
Kahoolawe, especially in dry to mesic areas (Wagner et al. 1990).
Populations of Brighamia insignis and Peucedanum sandwicense are
threatened by competition with air plant (HHP 1991u15, Takeuchi 1982).
Lantana camara (lantana), brought to Hawaii as an ornamental plant,
is an aggressive, thicket-forming shrub that can now be found on all of
the main islands in mesic forests, dry shrublands, and other dry,
disturbed habitats (Wagner et al. 1990). One or more populations of
each of the following taxa are threatened by lantana: Brighamia
insignis; Delissea rhytidosperma; Diellia pallida; Hibiscus clayi;
Lipochaeta fauriei; both varieties of Lipochaeta micrantha; Melicope
haupuensis; Melicope knudsenii; Munroidendron racemosum; Nothocestrum
peltatum; Peucedanum sandwicense; Pteralyxia kauaiensis; and both
varieties of Schiedea spergulina (HHP 1991a1 to 1991a3, 1991e3, 1991i1,
1991j1, 1991k1, 1991o1, 1991p2 to 1991p4, 1991s1, 1991s5, 1991s11,
1991s15, 1991t7, 1991u1, 1991u3, 1991u5, 1991w4, 1991w7, 1991y5; HPCC
1990a, 1990d1, 1990d2, 1990e, 1990f, 1990k1, 1990k2; T. Flynn, R.
Hobdy, D. Lorence, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991).
Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), a shrub naturalized and
sometimes the dominant species in low elevation, dry, disturbed areas
on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, threatens the following plants:
Lipochaeta waimeaensis; Munroidendron racemosum; and Schiedea
spergulina var. leiopoda (Geesnick et al. 1990; HHP 1991s3; Lamoureux
1982; T. Flynn and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). Lonicera japonica
(Japanese honeysuckle) is becoming naturalized in mesic to wet areas on
Kauai and Hawaii and threatens Solanum sandwicense Bruegmann 1990, HPCC
1990m, Wagner et al. 1990). Melastoma candidum, a small cultivated tree
that is now naturalized in mesic to wet areas of Kauai, threatens some
populations of Cyrtandra limahuliensis. Melia azedarach (Chinaberry), a
small tree widely cultivated and naturalized on most of the main
Hawaiian Islands, threatens Diellia pallida, Munroidendron racemosum,
and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina (HHP 1991e3, 1991y5; HPCC
1990h; Wagner et al. 1990). The aggressive Myrica faya (firetree) has
become a dominant plant in many mesic to wet forests on five Hawaiian
Islands. Populations of Exocarpos luteolus, Munroidendron racemosum,
and Peucedanum sandwicense are threatened by firetree (HHP 1991u3; HPCC
1990h; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991). Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly
pear, panini) is a cactus found in dry, disturbed habitats on five
islands and poses a threat to Lipochaeta waimeaensis (Solomon 1990; S.
Perlman, pers. comm., 1991).
Passiflora edulis (passion fruit) is a woody vine that occurs on
five Hawaiian Islands in mesic forests and shrublands and threatens
Nothocestrum peltatum (Escobar 1990, HPCC 1990i3). Passiflora ligularis
(sweet granadilla) is a woody vine that now occurs in diverse mesic
forest and wet forest on four islands and threatens Delissea
rhytidosperma (Escobar 1990; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1991). Passiflora
mollissima (banana poka), another woody vine, poses a serious problem
to mesic forests on Kauai and Hawaii by covering trees, reducing the
amount of light that reaches trees as well as understory. It causes
damage and death to trees by the weight of the vines. Animals,
especially feral pigs, eat the fruit and distribute the seeds (Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, Escobar 1990). Banana poka threatens Delissea
rhytidosperma, Nothocestrum peltatum, Peucedanum sandwicense,
Pteralyxia kauaiensis, and Solanum sandwicense (HHP 1991d1, 1991u5;
HPCC 1990i3, 1990m; D. Herbst, R. Hobdy, and J. Lau, pers. comms.,
1991). Pluchea carolinensis (sourbush), a shrub naturalized in dry,
coastal areas and mesic and wet forest on all of the main Hawaiian
Islands, threatens Lysimachia filifolia and Peucedanum sandwicense
(HPCC 1990g2; Wagner et al. 1990; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1991).
Two shrubs or small trees, Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava)
and Psidium guajava (common guava) were brought to Hawaii and have
become widely naturalized on all the main islands, forming dense stands
in disturbed areas. Strawberry guava, found in mesic and wet forests,
develops into stands in which few other plants grow, physically
displacing natural vegetation and greatly affecting Hawaiian plants,
many of which are narrowly endemic taxa. Pigs use strawberry guava for
food and, in turn, disperse the plant's seeds through the forests
(Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Strawberry guava is considered to be
the greatest weed problem in Hawaiian rain forests and is known to pose
a threat to Brighamia insignis, Cyrtandra limahuliensis, Hibiscus
clayi, Lipochaeta fauriei, and Lipochaeta micrantha var. exigua, and it
is a potential threat to Melicope quadrangularis (HHP 1991a1; HPCC
1990c, 1990e; Smith 1985; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991; D. Lorence et
al., in litt., 1991). Common guava invades disturbed sites, forming
dense thickets in dry as well as mesic and wet forests (Smith 1985,
Wagner et al. 1990). Common guava threatens Brighamia insignis,
Cyrtandra limahuliensis, Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta fauriei, Melicope
pallida, Munroidendron racemosum, Peucedanum sandwicense, and
Pteralyxia kauaiensis (Lamoureux 1982; HHP 1991a1, 1991a4, 1991s1,
1991s4, 1991s5, 1991u3, 1991u16; HPCC 1990d1, 1990h; T. Flynn, R.
Hobdy, and J. Lau, pers. comms., 1991).
Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry), an aggressive alien
species in disturbed mesic to wet forests and subalpine grasslands on
four islands, is considered a noxious weed by the State of Hawaii (DOA
1981, Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Prickly Florida blackberry
threatens Exocarpos luteolus, Melicope pallida, Melicope
quadrangularis, Nothocestrum peltatum, and Solanum sandwicense (HHP
1991z18, 1991z25; HPCC 1990i3, 1990i4, 1990m; T. Flynn, D. Herbst, R.
Hobdy, J. Lau, S. Perlman, and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1991). Schefflera
actinophylla (octopus tree), brought to Hawaii as a cultivated tree, is
shade tolerant and becomes established in undisturbed forests (Lowrey
1990, Smith 1985). It is now naturalized on at least four islands and
is a threat to Lysimachia filifolia as well as a potential threat to
Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1990c, HPCC 1990g2).
After escaping from cultivation, Schinus terebinthifolius
(Christmas berry) became naturalized on most of the main Hawaiian
Islands (Wagner et al. 1990). It threatens Hibiscus clayi and is a
potential threat to Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1990c, 1991h1; HPCC
1990j1, 1990j3; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1991). Four species of the genus
Stachytarpheta have naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, usually in
disturbed areas (Wagner et al. 1990). These alien herbs or subshrubs
threaten Brighamia insignis and Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991a1,
HPCC 1990j1). Syzygium cumini (Java plum), a tree naturalized in
disturbed mesic forests on most of the main Hawaiian Islands, threatens
Brighamia insignis, Hibiscus clayi, Melicope quadrangularis, and
Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991a1, 1991a2, 1991h1, 1991h2, 1991u1,
1991u3; HPCC 1990a; Wagner et al. 1990; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1991).
Triumfetta semitriloba (Sacramento bur) is a subshrub now found on four
Hawaiian Islands and considered to be a noxious weed by the State of
Hawaii (DOA 1981, Wagner et al. 1990). Populations of Munroidendron
racemosum and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina are threatened by
Sacramento bur (HHP 1991y5, HPCC 1990h). Toona ciliata (Australian red
cedar), a tree now naturalized on four Hawaiian Islands, is quickly
spreading in forests of the Waianae Mountains on Oahu and threatens
Melicope pallida (Wagner et al. 1990; S. Montgomery, pers. comm.,
1991).
Several hundred species of grasses have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, many for animal forage. Approximately 100 grass
species have become naturalized. Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass),
a perennial grass brought to Hawaii for cattle fodder, is now
naturalized in dry to mesic, disturbed areas on most of the main
Hawaiian Islands. Formed mats smother out other plants and fuel more
intense fires than would normally affect an area (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, O'Connor 1990, Smith 1985). Plants threatened by molasses grass
are Brighamia insignis, Lipochaeta fauriei, and populations of
Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991a1, 1991a3, 1991u3; HPCC 1990a; R.
Hobdy and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1991). Oplismenus hirtellus
(basketgrass) is a perennial grass that is naturalized in shaded mesic
valleys and forests and sometimes in wet forests on most of the main
Hawaiian Islands (O'Connor 1990). Diellia pallida, Hibiscus clayi, and
Lipochaeta fauriei are threatened by basketgrass (HHP 1991h1; HPCC
1990c, 1990d3; W.H. Wagner, pers comm., 1991). The perennial grass,
Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass), naturalized in moist to wet,
disturbed areas on most Hawaiian Islands, produces a dense ground
cover, even on poor soil, and threatens Cyrtandra limahuliensis and
Hibiscus clayi (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, O'Connor 1990, Smith 1985; T.
Flynn and R. Hobdy, pers. comms., 1991).
Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass), an aggressive, perennial
grass introduced to Hawaii as a pasture grass, withstands trampling and
grazing and has naturalized on four Hawaiian Islands in dry to mesic
forest. It produces thick mats that choke out other plants and prevent
their seedlings from establishing and has been declared a noxious weed
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 360) (DOA 1991, Medeiros
et al. 1986, O'Connor 1990, Smith 1985). Kikuyu grass threatens
Melicope knudsenii (R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1991). Rhynchelytrum repens
(Natal redtop) is an annual or perennial grass that is naturalized in
disturbed, usually dry areas on all the main Hawaiian Islands and
threatens Lipochaeta waimeaensis (O'Connor 1990; S. Perlman, pers.
comm., 1991). Setaria gracilis (yellow foxtail), a perennial grass
naturalized in wet to dry, disturbed habitat on most of the main
Hawaiian Islands, threatens Brighamia insignis, Melicope haupuensis,
and Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991a1, 1991a3, 1991o1, 1991u3;
O'Connor 1990). A perennial grass naturalized in disturbed areas on
most of the main Hawaiian Islands, Sporobolus africanus (smutgrass)
threatens Brighamia insignis and Peucedanum sandwicense (HHP 1991a1,
1991a3, 1991u15; O'Connor 1990).
Because Hawaiian plants were subjected to fire during their
evolution only in areas of volcanic activity and from occasional
lightning strikes, they are not adapted to recurring fire regimes and
are unable to recover well following a fire. Alien plants are often
better adapted to fire than native plant taxa and some fire-adapted
grasses have become widespread in Hawaii. The presence of such taxa in
Hawaiian ecosystems greatly increases the intensity, extent, and
frequency of fire. Fire-adapted alien taxa can reestablish in a burned
area, resulting in a reduction in the amount of native vegetation after
each fire. Fire is a serious, immediate threat along the Na Pali coast,
especially during drier months. Fires are caused by people pursuing
recreational activities and prevailing winds spread fires to inland
areas. Fire could destroy dormant seeds as well as plants, even on
steep cliffs (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, Corn et al. 1979, Cuddihy and
Stone 1990). Fire is a threat to Brighamia insignis, Exocarpos
luteolus, Melicope pallida, Munroidendron racemosum, Nothocestrum
peltatum, Peucedanum sandwicense, Pteralyxia kauaiensis, and Solanum
sandwicense. In addition, Lipochaeta fauriei is threatened by fire
because it occurs with molasses grass, a fire-adapted alien plant. The
only population of Delissea rhytidosperma is also considered to be
threatened by fire. The Maui population of Melicope knudsenii is
potentially threatened by fire, since it grows in a pasture area
covered by a thick mat of Kikuyu grass (Bruegmann 1990; Cuddihy and
Stone 1990; HHP 1991a1, 1991a3, 1991f3, 1991f6, 1991q6, 1991s2, 1991s5
to 1991s8, 1991s10, 1991s14, 1991s15, 1991t1, 1991t2, 1991u1, 1991u5,
1991u6, 1991u15, 1991u17, 1991w2, 1991w4, 1991z11, 1991z12, 1991z18,
1991z25; HPCC 1990i4; Medeiros et al. 1986; St. John 1981b; R. Hobdy,
pers. comm., 1991).
Illegal cultivation of Cannabis sativa (marijuana) occurs in
isolated portions of public and private lands in the Hawaiian Islands.
This agricultural practice opens areas in native forests into which
alien plants invade after the patches are abandoned (HHP 1990c).
Marijuana cultivation is considered a management problem in Hono O Na
Pali and Kuia NARs and is a potential threat to the following taxa,
which have populations in those areas: Brighamia insignis; Delissea
rhytidosperma; Munroidendron racemosum; Peucedanum sandwicense;
Pteralyxia kauaiensis; and Solanum sandwicense (HHP 1991a1, 1991d1,
1991s5, 1991s6, 1991u6, 1991w1, 1991z25; HHP and DOFAW 1989).
The small numbers of populations and individuals of most of these
taxa increase the potential for extinction from stochastic events. The
limited gene pool may depress reproductive vigor or a single human-
caused or natural environmental disturbance could destroy a significant
percentage of the individuals or the only known extant population.
Eight of the taxa, Cyanea asarifolia, Delissea rhytidosperma, Hedyotis
cookiana, Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta waimeaensis, Melicope haupuensis,
Melicope quadrangularis, and Schiedea spergulina var. leiopoda are
known from a single population. Ten other taxa are known from only two
to five populations (see Table 1). Seventeen of the taxa are estimated
to number no more than 100 known individuals (see Table 1). Seven of
these taxa, Cyanea asarifolia, Delissea rhytidosperma, Diellia pallida,
Hibiscus clayi, Lipochaeta waimeaensis, Melicope haupuensis, and
Phyllostegia waimeae, number no more than 10 individuals.
Erosion, landslides, and rock slides due to natural weathering,
result in the death of individual plants as well as habitat
destruction. This especially affects the continued existence of taxa
with limited numbers and/or narrow ranges, such as Cyanea asarifolia,
Delissea rhytidosperma, Lysimachia filifolia, Schiedea spergulina var.
leiopoda, and Solanum sandwicensis (CPC 1990; HHP 1991b2; HPCC 1990g1,
1990g2; T. Flynn and W.L. Wagner, pers. comms., 1991; D. Lorence et
al., in litt., 1991). Individuals of other species, such as Hedyotis
cookiana and Cyrtandra limahuliensis, are potentially threatened by
substrate loss. This process is often exacerbated by human disturbance
and land use practices (see Factor A).
In November 1982, Hurricane Iwa struck the Hawaiian Islands and
caused extensive damage, especially on the island of Kauai. Many forest
trees were destroyed, opening the canopy and, thus, allowing the
invasion of light-loving alien plants. These plants are a threat to the
continued existence of many of the taxa in this rule. Hurricane Iniki
hit the island of Kauai in September 1992 and caused significant damage
to rare plant populations on that island. Populations of at least four
taxa in this rule were seriously damaged by this hurricane, Cyanea
asarifolia, Brighamia insignis, Lysimachia filifolia, and Delissea
rhytidosperma. Damage by additional hurricanes could further decrease
the already reduced habitat of all 24 taxa.
The Service has carefully assessed the best scientific and
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and
future threats faced by these taxa in determining to make this rule
final. Based on this evaluation, the preferred action is to list 21 of
these plant taxa as endangered, Brighamia insignis ('olulu), Cyanea
asarifolia (haha), Delissea rhytidosperma (no common name (NCN)),
Diellia pallida (NCN), Exocarpos luteolus (heau), Hedyotis cookiana
('awiwi), Hibiscus clayi (Clay's hibiscus), Lipochaeta fauriei (nehe),
Lipochaeta micrantha (nehe), Lipochaeta waimeaensis (nehe), Lysimachia
filifolia (NCN), Melicope haupuensis (alani), Melicope knudsenii
(alani), Melicope pallida (alani), Melicope quadrangularis (alani),
Munroidendron racemosum (NCN), Nothocestrum peltatum ('aiea),
Phyllostegia waimeae (NCN), Pteralyxia kauaiensis (kaulu), Schiedea
spergulina var. leiopoda (NCN), and Solanum sandwicense
(popolo'aiakeakua). The preferred action for the remaining three plant
taxa is to list them as threatened, Cyrtandra limahuliensis (ha'iwale),
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou), and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina
(NCN). Nineteen of the taxa determined to be endangered either number
no more than 100 individuals or are known from 5 or fewer populations.
Small population size and limited distribution make these taxa
particularly vulnerable to extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor
from stochastic events. The 21 taxa are threatened by 1 or more of the
following: Habitat degradation and/or predation by feral goats, feral
cattle, feral pigs, rats, and deer; competition from alien plants;
natural disaster; human impacts; and lack of legal protection or
difficulty in enforcing laws that are already in effect. Because these
21 taxa are in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
portion of their ranges, they fit the definition of endangered as
defined in the Act.
Populations of three taxa (Cyrtandra limahuliensis, Peucedanum
sandwicense, and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina) are threatened to
some degree by fire, competition with alien plant taxa, and predation
by feral animals. The widespread distribution of populations and total
number of individuals reduces the likelihood that these taxa will
become extinct in the near future. For these reasons, these taxa are
not now in immediate danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of their ranges. However, Cyrtandra limahuliensis,
Peucedanum sandwicense, and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina are
likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future if these threats
are not curtailed. As a result, Cyrtandra limahuliensis, Peucedanum
sandwicense, and Schiedea spergulina var. spergulina fit the definition
of threatened species as defined in the Act.
Critical habitat is not being designated for the 24 taxa included
in this rule, for reasons discussed in the ``Critical Habitat'' section
of this rule.
Critical Habitat
Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, requires that, to the
maximum extent prudent and determinable, the Secretary designate
critical habitat at the time the taxa is listed. The Service finds that
designation of critical habitat is not presently prudent for these
species. As discussed under Factor B in the ``Summary of Factors
Affecting the Species,'' the species face numerous anthropogenic
threats. The publication of precise maps and descriptions of critical
habitat in the Federal Register, as required for the designation of
critical habitat, would increase the degree of threat to these plants
from take or vandalism and, therefore, could contribute to their
decline and increase enforcement problems. The listing of these species
under the Act publicizes the rarity of the plants and, thus, can make
these plants attractive to researchers, curiosity seekers, or
collectors of rare plants. All involved parties and the major
landowners have been notified of the importance of protecting the
habitat of these species. Protection of the habitat of the species will
be addressed through the recovery process and through the section 7
consultation process. There is only one Federal activity within the
currently known habitats of these plants. One species is located on
land owned by the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands and is currently
under a cooperative management agreement with the National Park Service
in Kalaupapa National Historical Park on the island of Molokai. As
protection of the species is now under the jurisdiction of the National
Park Service, Federal laws protect all plants in the park from damage
or removal. Therefore, the Service finds that designation of critical
habitat for these species is not prudent at this time, because such
designation would increase the degree of threat from vandalism,
collecting, or other human activities and because it is unlikely to aid
in the conservation of these species.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Endangered Species Act include recognition,
recovery actions, requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions
against certain activities. Recognition through listing encourages and
results in conservation actions by Federal, State, and private
agencies, groups, and individuals. The Endangered Species Act provides
for possible land acquisition and cooperation with the State and
requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed species.
The protection required of Federal agencies and the prohibitions
against certain activities involving listed plants are discussed, in
part, below.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or
listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is being designated. Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR
part 402. Section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal agencies to
insure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out are not
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of a listed species or to
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action
may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible
Federal agency must enter into formal consultation with the Service.
One population of Peucedanum sandwicense is located in Kalaupapa
National Historical Park. Laws relating to national parks prohibit
damage or removal of any plants growing in the parks. There are no
other known Federal activities that occur within the present known
habitat of these 24 plant species.
The Act and its implementing regulations found at 50 CFR 17.61,
17.62, and 17.63 for endangered plants and 17.71 and 17.72 for
threatened plants not covered by a special rule, set forth a series of
prohibitions and exceptions that apply to listed plant species. With
respect to the 24 plant species listed as endangered or threatened in
this rule, the prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented
by 50 CFR 17.61 or 17.71, apply. These prohibitions, in part, make it
illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States
to import or export; transport in interstate or foreign commerce in the
course of a commercial activity; sell or offer for sale in interstate
or foreign commerce; remove and reduce to possession any such species
from areas under Federal jurisdiction; maliciously damage or destroy
any such species on any area under Federal jurisdiction; or remove,
cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any such species on any other area in
knowing violation of any State law or regulation or in the course of
any violation of a State criminal trespass law. Seeds from cultivated
specimens of threatened plant species are exempt from these
prohibitions provided that a statement of ``cultivated origin'' appears
on their containers. Section 4(d) of the Act allows for the provision
of such protection to threatened species. Certain exceptions apply to
agents of the Service and State conservation agencies. The Act and 50
CFR 17.62, 17.63, and 17.72 also provide for the issuance of permits to
carry out otherwise prohibited activities involving endangered or
threatened plant species under certain circumstances. It is anticipated
that few trade permits would ever be sought or issued because the
species are not common in cultivation or in the wild.
Requests for copies of the regulations concerning listed plants and
inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be addressed to the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, Permits Branch,
911 N.E. 11th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97232-4181 (503/231- 6241; FAX
503-231-6243).
National Environmental Policy Act
The Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that an Environmental
Assessment, as defined under the authority of the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be prepared in connection
with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4(a) of the Endangered
Species Act of 1973, as amended. A notice outlining the Service's
reasons for this determination was published in the Federal Register on
October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited herein is available upon
request from the Pacific Islands Office (see ADDRESSES above).
Author
The authors of this final rule are Loyal A. Mehrhoff, Marie M.
Bruegmann, Derral R. Herbst, Joan E. Canfield, Z.E. Ellshoff, and Joan
M. Yoshioka, Ecological Services, Pacific Islands Office, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, room 6307, P.O. Box 50167,
Honolulu, Hawaii 96850 (808/541-3441). Substantial data was generously
contributed by Tim Flynn and David Lorence, National Tropical Botanical
Garden; and Steve Perlman and Ken Woods, Hawaii Plant Conservation
Center, and Joel Lau, Hawaii Heritage Program.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, and Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, is amended as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
2. Section 17.12(h) is amended by adding the following, in
alphabetical order under the families indicated, to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
------------------------------------------------ Historic range Status When listed Critical habitat Special rules
Scientific name Common name
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* * * * * * *
Apiaceae--Parsley family:
* * * * * * *
Peucedanum Makou............... U.S.A. (HI)........ T.................. 530................ NA................. NA
sandwicense.
* * * * * * *
Apocynaceae--Dogbane
family:
* * * * * * *
Pteralyxia kauaiensis Kaulu............... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Araliaceae--Ginseng
family:
Munroidendron None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
racemosum.
* * * * * * *
Aspleniaceae--Spleenwort
family:
* * * * * * *
Diellia pallida...... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Asteraceae--Aster family:
* * * * * * *
Lipochaeta fauriei... Nehe................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Lipochaeta micrantha. Nehe................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Lipochaeta Nehe................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
waimeaensis.
* * * * * * *
Campanulaceae--Bellflower
family:
* * * * * * *
Brighamia insignis... 'Olulu.............. U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Cyanea asarifolia.... Haha................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Delissea None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
rhytidosperma.
* * * * * * *
Caryophyllaceae--Pink
family:
* * * * * * *
Schiedea spergulina None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
var. leiopoda.
* * * * * * *
Schiedea spergulina None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ T.................. 530................ NA................. NA
var. spergulina.
* * * * * * *
Gesneriaceae--African
Violet family:
* * * * * * *
Cyrtandra Ha'iwale............ U.S.A. (HI)........ T.................. 530................ NA................. NA
limahuliensis.
* * * * * * *
Lamiaceae--Mint family:
* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia waimeae. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Malvaceae--Mallow family:
* * * * * * *
Hibiscus clayi....... Clay's hibiscus..... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Primulaceae--Primrose
family:
* * * * * * *
Lysimachia filifolia. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Rubiaceae--Coffee family:
* * * * * * *
Hedyotis cookiana.... 'Awiwi.............. U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Rutaceae--Citrus family:
* * * * * * *
Melicope haupuensis.. Alani............... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Melicope knudsenii... Alani............... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Melicope pallida..... Alani............... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Melicope Alani............... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
quadrangularis.
* * * * * * *
Santalaceae--Sandalwood
family:
* * * * * * *
Exocarpos luteolus... Heau................ U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Solanaceae--Nightshade
family:
* * * * * * *
Nothocestrum peltatum 'Aiea............... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
Solanum sandwicense.. Popolo 'aiakeakua... U.S.A. (HI)........ E.................. 530................ NA................. NA
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dated: February 10, 1994.
Mollie H. Beattie,
Director, Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 94-4038 Filed 2-24-94; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P
